Cymbopogon Species Research Articles

Cymbopogon species; ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and the pharmacological importance.

Cymbopogon genus is a member of the family of Gramineae which are herbs known worldwide for their high essential oil content. They are widely distributed across all continents where they are used for various purposes. The commercial and medicinal uses of the various species of Cymbopogon are well documented. Ethnopharmacology evidence shows that they possess a wide array of properties that justifies their use for pest control, in cosmetics and as anti-inflammation agents. These plants may also hold promise as potent anti-tumor and chemopreventive drugs. The chemo-types from this genus have been used as biomarkers for their identification and classification. Pharmacological applications of Cymbopogon citratus are well exploited, though studies show that other species may also useful pharmaceutically. Hence this literature review intends to discuss these species and explore their potential economic importance.

Fire and the dynamics of two unpalatable grass species (Cymbopogon pospischilii and Elionurus muticus) in a semi-arid climate

Cymbopogon pospischilii and Elionurus muticus are unpalatable for most of the growing season and form a reasonably large component of the vegetation composition in semi-arid grassland areas. The influence of an accidental fire on the dynamics of these two grass species was quantified over a three-year period (2008/09 to 2010/11 growing seasons) in a semi-arid grassland. After burning, the production of C. pospischilii was 18% higher than that of the total production of the rest of the burned species for the third growing season. Production of E. muticus was lowered by fire by 82% for the first season. Three years after the fire, the density of C. pospischilii was 14.52 plants m−2 versus an average for the unburned species of only 6.78 plants m−2. Seedling emergence from the seed bank for C. pospischilii and E. muticus, at the end of the third growing season, was respectively 6.6 and 12.4 seedlings m−2 more than that of unburned grassland – a reason for concern regarding plant composition stability of burnt semi-arid grasslands. This study provides a better understanding of the two unpalatable grass species Cymbopogon pospischilii and Elionurus muticus and the implications of this for the sustainable utilisation of semi-arid grassland.

Comparative investigation of cytological and biochemical analyses among two species of Cymbopogon under the influence of ethyl methane sulphonate collected from Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

Comparative investigation of cytological and biochemical analyses among two species of Cymbopogon under the influence of ethyl methane sulphonate collected from Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

Introduced and native grass-derived smoke effects on Cymbopogon obtectus germination

Introduced grasses, such as buffel, alter the dynamics of grassy ecosystems by replacing native species and influencing recruitment. Several different smoke-derived chemicals are separately responsible for the promotion and inhibition of germination of various plant species. We tested whether smoke derived from the introduced buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) produced the same density of germination as provided by smoke derived from a native spinifex grass (Triodia brizoides). Smoke from both spinifex and buffel grass significantly enhanced the germination of a native lemon grass (Cymbopogon obtectus) in comparison to untreated seed, reflecting the significant role of fire in woodlands across northern Australia. This is the first record of smoke-promoted germination in a species of Cymbopogon. However, smoke from the exotic buffel grass provided the same level of germination as that from the native spinifex, suggesting similarity in smoke chemicals involved. Further research is required to test the effect of buffel smoke on the germination of other species and whether exotics such as buffel grass provide the same temperature profile in the topsoil as does spinifex, and therefore equivalent germination cues to heat-shock responsive native plants.

Chemical composition, cytotoxicity and in vitro antitrypanosomal and antiplasmodial activity of the essential oils of four Cymbopogon species from Benin

Ethnopharmacological relevanceCymbopogon species are largely used in folk medicine for the treatment of many diseases some of which related to parasitical diseases as fevers and headaches. As part of our research on antiparasitic essential oils from Beninese plants, we decided to evaluate the in vitro antiplasmodial and antitrypanosomal activities of essential oils of four Cymbopogon species used in traditional medicine as well as their cytotoxicity. Materials and methodsThe essential oils of four Cymbopogon species Cymbopogon citratus (I), Cymbopogon giganteus (II), Cymbopogon nardus (III) and Cymbopogon schoenantus (IV) from Benin obtained by hydrodistillation were analysed by GC/MS and GC/FID and were tested in vitro against Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Plasmodium falciparum respectively for antitrypanosomal and antiplasmodial activities. Cytotoxicity was evaluated in vitro against Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells and the human non cancer fibroblast cell line (WI38) through MTT assay to evaluate the selectivity. ResultsAll tested oils showed a strong antitrypanosomal activity with a good selectivity. Sample II was the most active against Trypanosoma brucei brucei and could be considered as a good candidate. It was less active against Plasmodium falciparum. Samples II, III and IV had low or no cytotoxicity, but the essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus (I), was toxic against CHO cells and moderately toxic against WI38 cells and needs further toxicological studies. Sample I (29 compounds) was characterised by the presence as main constituents of geranial, neral, β-pinene and cis-geraniol; sample II (53 compounds) by trans-p-mentha-1(7),8-dien-2-ol, trans-carveol, trans-p-mentha-2,8-dienol, cis-p-mentha-2,8-dienol, cis-p-mentha-1(7),8-dien-2-ol, limonene, cis-carveol and cis-carvone; sample III (28 compounds) by β-citronellal, nerol, β-citronellol, elemol and limonene and sample IV (41 compounds) by piperitone, (+)-2-carene, limonene, elemol and β-eudesmol. ConclusionsOur study shows that essential oils of Cymbopogon genus can be a good source of antitrypanosomal agents. This is the first report on the activity of these essential oils against Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Plasmodium falciparum and analysis of their cytotoxicity.

Formulas of components of citronella oil against mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti)

The mosquito Aedes aegypti is an epidemic vector of several diseases such as dengue fever and yellow fever. Several pesticides are used to control the mosquito population. Because of their frequent use, some mosquitoes have developed resistance. In this study, we used the Y-tube olfactometer to test essential oils of Cymbopogon species and screened specific formulas of components as repellents against Ae. aegypti. At 400 μL, the extracted oil of citronella grass (Cymbopogon nardus) and myrcene produced a low-active response by inhibiting mosquito host-seeking activity. Citronella grass, lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus), citral and myrcene also produced a low-treatment response to repellents, for more potential to affect host-seeking behavior. Furthermore, the mixture of citral, myrcene, and citronellal oil (C:M:Ci = 6:4:1) greatly affected and inhibited host-seeking behavior (76% active response; 26% treatment response with 40 μL; 42.5%, 18% with 400 μL; and 19%, 23% with 1000 μL). As compared with the result for N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide (DEET; 44%, 22% with 400 μL), adjusting the composition formulas of citronella oil had a synergistic effect, for more effective repellent against Ae. aegypti.

Detection of Ethanol Adulteration in Citronellal Oil by using Near Infared Spectroscopy and Multivariate Data Analysis

Citronella oil is one of the essential oils obtained from the leaves and stems of different species of Cymbopogon. The oil is used extensively as a source of perfumery chemicals such as citronellal, citronellol and geraniol. These chemicals are use in soap, perfumery, cosmetic, flavouring industries and also insect repellent throughout the world. The objective of this study is to use Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) as a rapid analytical technique for quantitative assessment of purity in citronella oils. At first, the potential of NIRS in controlling and monitoring the quality of essential oil was investigated by diluting ethanol in different concentration as perturbation. Partial Least Square (PLS) regression method was used as a mathematical approach to detect and quantify ethanol. A number of wavelength ranges and data pretreatments were explored. The accuracy of these mathematical models was compared, and the most successful models were identified. The results demonstrate that NIRS technology was useful in the rapid and accurate detect and quantify ethanol in citronella oil.

Autopolyploidy differentially influences body size in plants, but facilitates enhanced accumulation of secondary metabolites, causing increased cytosine methylation

Whole genome duplication leads to autopolyploidy and brings about an increase in cell size, concentration of secondary metabolites and enhanced cytosine methylation. The increased cell size offers a positive advantage to polyploids for cell-surface-related activities, but there is a differential response to change in body size across species and taxonomic groups. Although polyploidy has been very extensively studied, having genetic, ecological and evolutionary implications, there is no report that underscores the significance of native secondary metabolites vis-à-vis body size with ploidy change. To address this problem we targeted unique diploid-autotetraploid paired sets of eight diverse clones of six species of Cymbopogon- a species complex of aromatic grasses that accumulate qualitatively different monoterpene essential oils (secondary metabolite) in their vegetative biomass. Based on the qualitative composition of essential oils and the plant body size relationship between the diploid versus autotetraploid paired sets, we show that polyploidy brings about enhanced accumulation of secondary metabolites in all cases, but exerts differential effects on body size in various species. It is observed that the accumulation of alcohol-type metabolites (e.g. geraniol) does not inhibit increase in body size with ploidy change from 2× to 4× (r = 0.854, P < 0.01), but aldehyde-type metabolites (e.g. citral) appear to drastically impede body development (r = -0.895). Such a differential response may be correlated to the metabolic steps involved in the synthesis of essential oil components. When changed to tetraploidy, the progenitor diploids requiring longer metabolic steps in production of their secondary metabolites are stressed, and those having shorter metabolite routes better utilize their resources for growth and vigour. In situ immunodetection of 5-methylcytosine sites reveals enhanced DNA methylation in autopolyploids. It is underpinned that the qualitative composition of secondary metabolites found in the vegetative biomass of the progenitor diploid has a decisive bearing on the body size of the derived autotetraploids and brings about an enhancement in genome-wide cytosine methylation.

Stability for oil yield and variety recommendations’ using AMMI (additive main effects and multiplicative interactions) model in Lemongrass (Cymbopogon species)

The investigation was carried out to determine the stability and adaptability patterns of a set of ten released and commercial varieties of lemongrass (released by CIMAP, Lucknow), for commercial cultivation in different part/environments, namely, Pragati, Krishna, Cauvery, Nima, YEL-1, LMH-4 of Cymbopogon flaxuosus, Praman (Cymbopogon pendulus), T-1 (Cymbopogon citratus), CIMAP Suwarana and parent-1 (Cymbopogon khasianus) in a multi-year evaluation trial across three consecutive years. Among the objectives of multiyear essential oil yield field trials are the establishment of adaptation strategies for breeding programs and definition of domains for variety recommendations in lemongrass varieties. The adaptation strategy objectives focuses on responses of a set of varieties to obtain indications and generate predictions relative to future breeding material that may be produced from the genetic base of which the tested genotypes/varieties are assumed to be a representative sample, while, for cultivar recommendation the most important information concern the response of, and comparison between, high yielding varieties. Yield stability is one of the setback facing plant breeders in using/developing widely adapted varieties with superior yield of better quality. Based on the stability statistics, the different varieties can be classified as stable variety. The multivariate approach AMMI model (more authentic approach than univariate approach), have capability to provide a broader inferences on adaptability. Based on the AMMI model, varieties CIMAP Suwarna, showed the widest adaptability (most stable varieties) due to its ability to tolerate wide environmental conditions, temperature/or abiotic stress in different years/environments.

Comparison of essential oils composition ofCymbopogon speciesgrown in Sikkim

Comparative study on the essential oil constituents of Cymbopogon winterianus (Citronella) and Cymbopogon flexuosus (Lemongrass) was done by using GC-MS. These Cymbopogon species were grown under organic condition in the research farm of ICAR Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Sikkim during 2011. The major constituents of citronella were beta citronellal (26.16%), geraniol (15.90%), alpha citral (13.87%), beta citral (11.74%), beta citronellol (10.84%) and limonene (4.15%). In case of lemon grass the major constituents were found to be alpha citral (41.89%), beta citral (34.90%), 1-methyl-1-ethylcyclopentane (3.13%) and toluene (2.83%). The results revealed comparatively higher proportion of geraniol (15.90%) in citronella and total citral content (76.79%) in lemon grass, which are important sources for perfumery, pharmaceutical and flavour industry.

An Update on Bioactive Potential of a Monoterpene Aldehyde Citral

Citral is a lemon scented acyclic monoterpene aldehyde consists of a racemic mixture of two isomers geranial (trans-citral or citral A) and neral (cis-citral or citral B). It is most important component of essential oils of Cymbopogon species mainly, East Indian (Cymbopogon flexuosus) and West Indian (C. citratus) lemongrass. It is also present as major component in other plant species particularly, citrus fruits. Citral imparts a characteristic lemon like aroma to the essential oils of lemongrass. Citral possesses many significant bioactivities such as, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiparasitic, allelopathic and mosquito repellent. Citral is most valuable monoterpene in flavors, fragrances, cosmetics, perfumery and pharmaceuticals. It is used for the synthesis of vitamin A and β-ionones and other specialty chemicals. A growing number of reports published on bioactivities of citral and citral rich essential oils have reflected their rapidly increasing medicinal and pharmacological significance. In the present work, we have reviewed reports published recently on bioactivities of citral, citral derivatives and essential oils rich in citral content.

Pharmacodynamic properties of essential oils from Cymbopogon species

Pharmacodynamic research plays an important role in the development of new antibacterial agents. Characterization of this pharmacodynamic can be used to design the best dose and dosing strategy for clinical trials. The pharmacodynamic properties can be determined by studying the bactericidal activity and the postantibiotic effects (PAE). Measurements of both bactericidal activity and the lag time could be useful in screening the efficacy of antimicrobial agents. In this study, the pharmacodynamic properties of essential oils from Cymbopogon flexuosus (lemongrass) and Cymbopogon nardus (citronella) as well as the combinations of both essential oils were evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. At high concentrations (1.0 × minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) and 0.5 × MBC), citronella and lemongrass essential oils alone or in combinations indicate high bactericidal activities toward S. aureus and E. coli, as shown by the decrease of optical absorbance values serially up to 24 h. However, these two essential oils or its combinations at lower concentrations (0.25 × MBC and 0.125 × MBC) showed the bacterial regrowth after 3 and 1 h of exposure time against S. aureus and E. Coli, respectively. Generally, citronella and lemongrass essential oils as well as its combinations indicate a significant lag of regrowth or PAE values which were more than 0.5 h towards both E. coli and S. aureus. This finding suggests that essential oils from Cymbopogon species showed a potential antimicrobial activity that can further be used for clinical treatment; thus, there is need for a study on the possible impact of PAE in the clinical situation.

Assessment of the growth inhibiting effect of some plant essential oils on different Fusarium species isolated from sorghum and maize grains

The antifungal activity of essential oils from clove, cedar wood, Cymbopogon species, peppermint, Eucalyptus and neem were tested for their efficacy against nine Fusarium species, namely F. verticillioides, F. proliferatum, F. o x y spo r u m, F. a n -thophilum, F. pallidoroseum, F. sporotrichioides, F. sol ani, F. g ra m i n ea r u m and F. lateritium, isolated from maize and sorghum. The results showed that essential oils were anti-fungal at concentrations of 500–2500 ppm or higher. The oil Cymbopogon nardus (referred to as citronella oil) was inhibiting all the Fusarium species growth at 500 ppm and higher. The next most potent inhibitors, the oil from C. citratus (referred to as lemongrass oil) and peppermint oils, were fully inhibitory from a concentration of 1500 and 2000 ppm and higher, respectively. Eucalyptus and neem oils were less effective in inhibiting the growth of Fusarium species tested, irrespective of their concentration. Among the seven essential oils tested against all the Fusarium species, the citronella oil showed highest inhibitory effect (minimum inhibitory concentration, MIC) at = 1500, 2000, 1000, 500 ppm against F. verticillioides, F. oxy sp orum, F. sporotrichioides, F. lateritium mycelial growth development respectively. However clove, lemongrass oil and citronella showed highest inhibitory effect (= 1500 ppm) against F. pr o lif e ra t u m and F. pallidoro-seum respectively. Further lemongrass oil showed highest inhibitory effects at = 1500 and 500 ppm against F. a n t h o p h i -lum and F. lateritum respectively. The least MIC for F. gra -minearum was observed in peppermint oil at = 500 ppm. The results indicate that the tested toxigenic Fusarium spp. are sensitive to the essential oils, and particularly sensitive to the citronella oil. These findings clearly indicate that essential oils should find a practical application to control the growth of Fusarium species in stored maize and sorghum grains.

Modelagem matemática e parâmetros qualitativos da secagem de folhas de capim-limão [Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf

A espécie Cymbopogon citratus, conhecida como capim-limão, é amplamente utilizada popularmente para fins medicinais e tem o uso nas indústrias farmacêuticas, alimentícias, de cosméticos e perfumaria. Devido à necessidade de conhecimentos específicos na área de pré-processamento, o presente trabalho tem a finalidade de equacionar e analisar alguns aspectos da secagem, que permitam prever as alterações na qualidade do produto. Folhas da referida espécie foram submetidas a cortes em diferentes comprimentos e à secagem em diferentes temperaturas. Aos dados experimentais, ajustaram-se diferentes equações para a modelagem das curvas de secagem. Realizaram-se também avaliações do produto seco, referentes à cor e ao teor do óleo essencial. Os resultados evidenciam que o modelo de Page Modificado é o que melhor se ajusta aos dados experimentais. A temperatura de 50ºC mostrou-se a mais indicada para a secagem da espécie, resultando em produto com menor perda do óleo essencial e maior preservação da cor verde.

Essential Oil Biosynthesis and Regulation in the Genus Cymbopogon

Essential oils distilled from Cymbopogon species are of immense commercial value as flavors and fragrances in the perfumery, cosmetics, soaps, and detergents and in pharmaceutical industries. Two major constituents of the essential oil, geraniol and citral, due to their specific rose and lemon like aromas are widely used as flavors, fragrances and cosmetics. Citral is also used for the synthesis of vitamin A and ionones (for example, beta-ionone, methyl ionone). Moreover, Cymbopogon essential oils and constituents possess many useful biological activities including cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. Despite the immense commercial and biological significance of the Cymbopogon essential oils, little is known about their biosynthesis and regulatory mechanisms. So far it is known that essential oils are biosynthesized via the classical acetate-MVA route and existence of a newly discovered MEP pathway in Cymbopogon remains as a topic for investigation. The aim of the present review is to discuss the biosynthesis and regulation of essential oils in the genus Cymbopogon with given emphasis to two elite members, lemongrass (C. flexuosus Nees ex Steud) and palmarosa (C. martinii Roxb.). This article highlights the work done so far towards understanding of essential oil biosynthesis and regulation in the genus Cymbopogon. Also, based on our experiences with Cymbopogon species, we would like to propose C. flexuosus as a model system for the study of essential oil metabolism beyond the much studied plant family Lamiaceae.

Variation in the susceptibility of two Callosobruchus species to essential oils

GC/MS analysis of essential oils extracted from two Cymbopogon species revealed that limonene (23%) and p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol in cis (14.3%) and trans (5.6%) forms were the main compounds in Cymbopogon giganteus oil whereas citronellal (31%) and geraniol (24%) were identified in Cymbopogon nardus oil. The toxicity tests performed by fumigation on eggs and adults of Callosobruchus maculatus and Callosobruchus subinnotatus using both essential oils showed a variation in bruchid susceptibility. Essential oil of C. giganteus was more toxic to adults of both bruchid species while essential oil of C. nardus showed the better ovicidal activity. Comparative susceptibility analysis suggested that eggs and adults of C. subinnotatus were two-fold more tolerant to essential oils than C. maculatus in both stages. Oviposition of treated females was strongly reduced in the presence of essential oils. Callosobruchus subinnotatus was more affected than C. maculatus by the essential oil of C. giganteus (oviposition reduction by at least 91% v.s 81% in C. maculatus at 5 μL/L) but the two species were affected similarly by the essential oil of C. nardus.

Efficacy of the botanical repellents geraniol, linalool, and citronella against mosquitoes

We determined the degree of personal protection provided by citronella, linalool, and geraniol in the form of commercially available candles or diffusers, both indoors and outdoors. Under the uniform conditions of the experiments, all substances repelled significantly more mosquitoes than the unprotected control. Furthermore, the repellents tested were more active when in the form of a continuous release diffuser than in candle form. All candles were 88 g containing 5% of the active ingredient and all diffusers contained 20 g of 100% active ingredient. Indoors, the repellency rate of citronella candles was only 14% while the repellency rate of citronella diffusers was 68%. The repellency of geraniol candles was 50% while the diffusers provided a repellency rate of 97%. No linalool candles were available for study but linalool diffusers repelled mosquitoes by 93%. Outdoors, citronella diffusers placed 6 m from mosquito traps repelled female mosquitoes by 22%, linalool repelled females by 58%, and geraniol repelled females by 75%. Trap catches were significantly reduced again when diffusers were placed 3 m from the traps. We concluded that geraniol had significantly more repellent activity than citronella or linalool in both indoor and outdoor settings.

Development of Simple Sequence Repeat Markers in Cymbopogon Species

The genus Cymbopogon comprises about 140 species, which produce characteristic aromatic essential oils. However, the phenotypic identification of species of Cymbopogon has been difficult as a result of widespread occurrence of natural variants, which differ in ploidy levels and chemotaxonomic complexities. Therefore, we have developed a set of simple sequence repeat markers from a genomic library of Cymbopogon jwarancusa to help in the precise identification of the species (including accessions) of Cymbopogon. For this purpose, we isolated 16 simple sequence repeat containing genomic deoxyribonucleic acid clones of C. jwarancusa, which contained a total of 32 simple sequence repeats with a range of 1 to 3 simple sequence repeats per clone. The majority (68.8%) of the 32 simple sequence repeats comprised dinucleotide repeat motifs followed by simple sequence repeats with trinucleotide (21.8%) and other higher order repeat motifs. Eighteen (81.8%) of the 22 designed primers for the above simple sequence repeats amplified products of expected sizes, when tried with genomic DNA of C. jwarancusa, the source species. Thirteen (72.2%) of the 18 functional primers detected polymorphism among the three species of Cymbopogon (C. flexuosus, C. pendulus and C. jwarancusa) and amplified a total of 95 alleles (range 1-18 alleles) with a PIC value of 0.44 to 0.96 per simple sequence repeat. Thus, the higher allelic range and high level of polymorphism demonstrated by the newly developed simple sequence repeat markers are likely to have many applications such as in improvement of essential oil quality by authentication of Cymbopogon species and varieties and mapping or tagging the genes controlling agronomically important traits of essential oils, which can further be utilized in marker assisted breeding.

Insecticidal Activity of Essential Oils of Ceylon Cinnamomum and Cymbopogon species against Musca domestica

Insecticidal properties of essential oils of leaf and bark of Ceylon Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (Lauraceae), Cymbopogon nardus Rendle (Gramineae) and Cymbopogon citratus DC. (Gramineae) and their 10 compounds were investigated against Musca domestica (housefy). Cinnamomum zeylanicum bark and Cymbopogon citratus oils showed good knock down and mortality against M. domestica (LD50 1.37 and 1.71 μg/insect, respectively) than C. zeylanicum leaf (LD50 2.75 μg/insect) and C. nardus (LD50 3.10 μ/insect) oils. Cinnamaldehyde (65%) was a major constituent of C. zeylanicum bark oil, eugenol (77%) in the C. zeylanicum leaf oil, geraniol (24.8%) in the oil of C. nardus and citral (78.8%) in C. citratus leaf oil. Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, eugenyl acetate, geraniol and geranyl acetate were more active against M. domestica than their corresponding essential oils, while cinnamyl acetate, citral, citronellal, citronellol and α-terpineol were less active.

GGE Biplot Analysis of Oil Yield in Lemongrass (Cymbopogon spp.)

ABSTRACT Six varieties/strains belonging to three species of Cymbopogon, viz., C. flexuosus, C. khasianus and C. pendulus, or their hybrids, were evaluated for oil yield across four years (1997-98-2000-01) as very limited information is available on variety-by-environment interaction from multi-environment trials. The main effects, varieties and years, were significant, but variety-by-year interaction was not significant. Log-transformation of data reduced coefficients of variation from 45.52% to 16.7% and increased R-square for the linear model from 70.8% to 81.9%. A traditional analysis of variance indicated that CKP25 and F2-38 were not different in oil yield and were superior to other varieties. Principal component analysis of GGE biplot methodology also revealed CKP25 to be the highest yielding genotype in all four years, followed by F2-38. Variety CKP25 could be used in a breeding program to develop new high yielding, consistent-performing varieties. Both untransformed and log-transformed data analy...