This study investigated the use of nanostructured hydroxyapatite (HA) derived from tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) bones to produce particles for encapsulating citronella essential oil within a sodium alginate matrix, aimed at antimicrobial applications. Particles were obtained by emulsifying sodium alginate, citronella essential oil, and HA in different proportions, followed by dripping the emulsion into a CaCl2 solution. Rheological properties were characterized by rotational rheometry to assess emulsion stability, thixotropy, and viscosity. All emulsions exhibited pseudoplastic and thixotropic behavior, with viscosity decreasing as HA concentration increased. While higher HA content improved emulsion stability, it reduced thixotropy, resulting in lower encapsulation efficiency. Release kinetics indicated that the formulation with intermediate HA content enabled more controlled essential oil release. In antimicrobial assays, this formulation achieved the highest activity against Escherichia coli, with an inhibition halo of 34 ± 3 mm. The results propose a sustainable strategy for enhancing controlled release and antimicrobial performance of encapsulated agents, employing biocompatible materials derived from animal waste, with potential applications in biomedicine, food preservation, and environmental protection.

Evaluation of rainbow trout response to the optimal anesthetic concentration of citronella oil (Cymbopogon nardus) predicted by artificial neural network

Citronella (Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle) essential oil is widely utilized in the perfume, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries, primarily due to its high content of citronellal, geraniol, and citronellol. This study aimed to evaluate the chemical composition and quality parameters of citronella essential oil using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and physicochemical analysis. The oil sample was obtained by steam distillation of fresh leaves and subsequently characterized in terms of specific gravity, refractive index, optical rotation, and flash point, while the chemical composition was determined based on GC–MS chromatogram peak areas. The physicochemical analysis showed a specific gravity of 0.894, refractive index of 1.477, optical rotation of −6.59°, and a flash point above 80 °C, indicating compliance with quality standards for citronella essential oil. GC–MS analysis identified 21 compounds, with trans-geraniol (70.65%), geranyl acetate (7.70%), β-citronellol (3.17%), and citronellal (1.78%) as the major constituents. These findings confirm that steam-distilled citronella essential oil exhibits good quality and a chemical profile that supports its potential for essential oil-based industrial applications.

There are two commonly known types of lemongrass, namely kitchen lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) and fragrant lemongrass (Cymbopogon nardus L.), both of which are widely used by the community as traditional medicine. This study focuses on fresh fragrant lemongrass, in which the stems are utilized to produce a spray preparation that functions as a mosquito repellent. The study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of fragrant lemongrass essential oil formulated as a spray with different concentrations of 5%, 10%, and 15%. The essential oil of fragrant lemongrass is obtained using the steam distillation method. Prior to formulation into a spray, phytochemical screening was conducted to identify the presence of flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and terpenoids. After completing the phytochemical screening, spray formulations were prepared and divided into three formulation groups. Each formulated spray was evaluated for physical properties, including organoleptic characteristics, pH value, clarity, and homogeneity. In addition, an activity test of the repellent spray was carried out using mosquito test animals. The results showed that the citronella essential oil spray (Cymbopogon nardus L.) exhibited an average repellent power of 61.6% in formulation I, 81.40% in formulation II, and 81.41% in formulation III. The protection power test indicated that the highest repellent activity was observed in formulation III. Based on the One Way ANOVA analysis followed by a Post Hoc test, there was no significant difference between formulation II and formulation III. These findings support the potential use of citronella spray as repellent.

In search for an eco-friendly and comparatively safe insecticide, citronella essential oil (CEO) and isolated terpenoids were evaluated against Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) on Bt cotton during the years 2022 and 2023. The CEO was extracted from the leaves of Cymbopogon nardus and analysed. Citronellal and Citronellol were isolated from CEO via silica gel column chromatography and characterised using NMR and IR. The application of CEO significantly reduced the damage caused by B. tabaci on cotton in a concentration-dependent manner, which was comparable to the standard azadirachtin in both multiple-choice and no-choice conditions. The CEO and isolated terpenoids showed repellent, toxic and oviposition deterrent effects. The activity of monoterpenoids alone was comparatively lower than CEO. Our results provided the possibility that the CEO can be successfully employed as a botanical insecticide in integrated pest management for the control of B. tabaci.

Although quantitative data regarding Melia dubia Cav.-Cymbopogon interactions remains limited, silvi-aromatic agroforestry systems are progressively recognized for their ability to enhance land-use efficiency, agricultural income and sustainability by modifying microclimates and regulating secondary metabolism in aromatic crops. This research employed a replicated split-plot design with five replications over three harvests from 2024 to 2025 to evaluate the performance of two M. dubia clones (MTP-1 and MTP-2) intercropped with lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) and citronella (Cymbopogon nardus) at the University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru, India (13°04′ N; 77°35′ E). We assessed growth parameters, forage output, oil yield and oil content. We employed GC-MS to analyse the composition of the essential oil, utilizing spectral libraries and authentic standards for chemical identification. MTP-1 consistently surpassed MTP-2 in vegetative growth and biomass production during all harvests. At the third harvest, plants cultivated with MTP-1 measured 138.65 cm in height and produced 135.65 tillers. Plants cultivated with MTP-2 attained a height of only 88.15 cm and produced 67.75 tillers. The MTP-1 system produced greater quantities of fresh and dried herbage and oil (44.37 vs. 29.96 kg ha-1), with the MTP-1 and lemongrass combination yielding the maximum oil output (46.36 kg ha-1). The MTP-2 × citronella combination had a higher oil content (2.12 % compared to 1.76 %), indicating a trade-off between biomass accumulation and oil concentration. In citronella oil, shady conditions decreased citronellal while increasing geranyl acetate. The citral (geranial + neral) concentration in lemongrass oil was increased. Agroforestry systems with M. dubia enhance growth and oil yield while altering the composition of essential oils. This renders them beneficial for both the environment and the economy and they can be utilized to achieve market and quality objectives.

Quantification of geometric isomers of citral and minor oleochemicals in Cymbopogon flexuosus (lemongrass) and Cymbopogon nardus (citronella) essential oils by 1H qNMR method.

Harnessing antimicrobial and antioxidant-rich emulsions from citronella (Cymbopogon nardus) oil enriched with plant extract mixture for effective wound healing

The global consumption of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) has risen dramatically. However, safety concerns persist owing to contamination with elemental impurities. In this study, we optimized and validated an analytical method for quantifying four toxic metals, As, Cd, Pb, and Hg, in Yataprasen (YTPS) extract, a complex Thai traditional polyherbal formulation. Samples were obtained from natural collection sites and commercial sources, and the contributions of 13 individual herbs to total impurities were evaluated. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was applied following four acid-digestion protocols. Quantification involved external calibration and standard addition, with validation covering LOD, LOQ, linearity, precision, and recovery. Toxicological risk was assessed in accordance with the ICH Q3D(R2) guideline. Digestion with 1 mL of HNO3 gave the highest accuracy and recovery. Cd and Pb levels showed little variation across methods. Validation demonstrated excellent accuracy (93.6-107.5% recovery), strong linearity (R2 > 0.998), and low detection limits (<1.5 µg/kg). A significant difference in elemental impurity concentration was observed between the two sources, with the naturally collected YTPS exhibiting markedly higher levels of all four metals than the commercial one. While external calibration was sufficient for commercial samples, standard addition was required for naturally sourced samples to overcome matrix effects. Component analysis identified Allium sativum L., Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle, and Melia azedarach L. as the major contributors to the impurity burden. Source-dependent variation in elemental impurity concentration was observed in YTPS extracts, with natural collection posing a greater toxicological concern. The validated analytical workflow provides a robust platform for quality control and regulatory assessment of traditional polyherbal formulations.

The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.), is a serious pest of cruciferous crops worldwide and cause serious damage, resulting in up to 90 % yield loss. Heavy dependence on synthetic insecticides has led to widespread resistance and raised environmental concerns, demanding an urgent need for safer, eco-friendly pest control options. In this study, we examined the electrophysiological, behavioural responses of P. xylostella to ten Essential Oils (EOs): Pelargonium hortorum, Ocimum basilicum, Acorus calamus, Trachyspermum ammi, Piper betle, Cymbopogon nardus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Zingiber officinale, Mentha piperita, and Eucalyptus citriodora. Electro Antennogram (EAG) analysis showed that all EOs tested elicited antennal response in adult females; however, R. officinalis, A. calamus, Z. officinale and C. nardus caused significantly higher responses than the other oils tested, and this antennal response aids in host and mate selection. In the behavioural assay using the Y-tube olfactometer revealed that A. calamus, P. betel, Z. officinale, R. officinalis and P. hortorum produced highly significant repellency (P ≤ 0.01). Oviposition assays further revealed that A. calamus, P. hortorum, and Z. officinale at 5% reduced egg laying by 91.78%, 86.9%, and 73.86%, respectively and it was 2.4 to 3.0 times more effective than neem Azadirachta indica. Overall, the results demonstrate robust olfactory and behavioural impacts of several essential oils, particularly A. calamus, Z. officinale and P. hortorum, supporting their potential as botanical repellents or oviposition deterrents for integrated pest management targeting P. xylostella.

Obesity is a major global health concern, often treated by inhibiting pancreatic lipase to reduce fat absorption. While chemical-based medicine is a widely used synthetic inhibitor, its side effects highlight the need for safer, natural alternatives. This study aimed to characterize the total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), antioxidant activity, and pancreatic lipase inhibition of citronella leaf (Cymbopogon nardus), galangal rhizome (Alpinia galanga), and sand galangal rhizome (Kaempferia galanga) through in vitro and in silico analyses and to identify the potential phytochemical compounds responsible for the activity. Citronella showed the highest TPC, TFC, and FRAP values (14.20±0.21 mg GAE/g, 17.36±9.51 mg QE/g, and 92.01±1.88 µmol TE/g, respectively), indicating strong antioxidant potential. Galangal exhibited the highest extraction yield (21.86±5.34%) and DPPH activity (1.09±0.27 µmol TE/g). In vitro lipase inhibition assays revealed galangal and sand galangal had moderate inhibitory effects (IC50= 401.2±18.24 and 374±11.24 µg/mL), while citronella showed weak activity. LC-MS/MS analysis of galangal identified eight compounds, including galangin, eugenol, and galanganol C. Molecular docking showed galangin had the strongest binding affinity (ΔG= -10.239 kcal/mol), interacting with catalytic residues Ser152 and His263 of pancreatic lipase via hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. These findings suggest that citronella, galangal, and sand galangal possess potential as natural pancreatic lipase inhibitors, with galangal particularly galangin showing the most promising activity for obesity prevention and management.

Indonesia is a tropical country that has very high biodiversity, one of which is the citronella plant (Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle). Citronella leaves have a strong distinctive aroma and essential oils are odorous compounds found in the plant. This study aims to identify the components of compounds in essential oils in citronella oil and the potential for antibiofilm against Escherichia coli and Candida albicans. Essential oils were obtained through a distillation process. Furthermore, they were tested in four concentration series (0.125%; 0.25%; 0.5%; 0.1%) to measure the activity of the ability to inhibit the formation of E. coli and C. albicans biofilms using the microdilution method. The results of the antibiofilm test were analyzed based on optical density to calculate the percentage of inhibition. Citronella essential oil with the highest concentration of 1% showed inhibition of biofilm formation against E. coli and C. albicans of 84% and 79% respectively. Citronella essential oil can inhibit the formation of E. coli and C. albicans biofilms.

Lime (Citrus aurantifolia) is a plant that has been empirically recognized to possess insecticidal and repellent properties. Citronella oil (Cymbopogon nardus) is an essential oil with antidepressant properties and is commonly used as aromatherapy. The purpose of this study was to determine the physical properties and mosquito-repellent activity of a stick balm preparation formulated from lime peel extract (Citrus aurantifolia) as a repellent, with the addition of citronella oil (Cymbopogon nardus) as aromatherapy. This study employed an experimental research method. Stick balm preparations were made in four formulations with extract concentrations of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%. The formulations were evaluated for organoleptic characteristics, pH, homogeneity, spreadability, smearability, hedonic acceptance, irritation, and the presence of steroids and terpenoids, as well as tested for mosquito-repellent activity against Aedes aegypti. The evaluation results showed that all formulations met the established physical quality standards, indicating good stability and safety. The mosquito-repellent effectiveness test demonstrated that formulation F3 (15% lime peel extract) provided the highest protection at 94.74%, followed by F2 (84.21%), F1 (74.68%), and F0 (42.11%). Thus, stick balm preparations containing lime peel extract and citronella oil are physically stable, safe, and effective as mosquito-repellent aromatherapy, with F3 being the most effective formulation.

Balm is a topical preparation commonly used to relieve muscle pain through a warming effect. The innovation of balm in stick form offers more prac tical and hygienic application. This study aimed to formulate a balm stick from lemongrass (Cymbopogon nardus L.) essential oil, evaluate its physical stability, and conduct a skin irritation test. This experimental study employed steam distil lation and melting methods for preparation. Three balm stick formulations were developed based on varying concentrations of lemongrass essential oil: FI (20%), FII (25%), and FIII (30%). Stability tests included organoleptic observation, ho mogeneity, pH measurement, spreadability, and skin irritation assessment. Results showed that all formulations maintained stable color, aroma, and form for up to one week of storage. All three formulations exhibited good homogeneity and pH values within the skin standard (pH 5). The spreadability test indicated good ad herence to the skin, and no irritation was observed before or after storage. In conclusion, variations in essential oil concentration can be successfully formulat ed into an aromatherapy balm stick for muscle pain relief. The concentration all variations did not affect the stability of the preparations, and all formulations passed the skin irritation test, supporting their use as topical aromatherapy and muscle pain relief products.

Natural active-ingredient-based shampoos offer an effective and eco-friendly solution for maintaining the skin and hair health of companion animals. This study aimed to predict the toxicity of phytochemical compounds from citronella oil (Cymbopogon nardus) and neem oil (Azadirachta indica) using an in silico approach with the ProTox-II platform. The analyzed compounds included limonene, farnesene, eucalyptol, menthol, oleic acid, p-cymene, indole, (9Z)-9- octadecenamide, amylbenzene, p-cresol, camphor, and dieugenol, selected based on LC-MS/MS analysis. The evaluated toxicological parameters comprised oral acute toxicity (LD50), hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, genotoxicity (cytotoxicity, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity), as well as nuclear receptor signaling and stress response pathways. The results revealed that p-cymene exhibited the highest toxicity (LD50 = 3 mg/kg, class I), followed by oleic acid (LD50 = 48 mg/kg, class II), whereas amylbenzene was classified as non-toxic (LD50 = 6430 mg/kg, class VI). All compounds were predicted to be non-hepatotoxic and non-immunotoxic; however, p-cymene, indole, and amylbenzene showed potential carcinogenicity. Limonene was predicted to be active against AhR, ER, MMP, and ATAD5 receptors, while dieugenol was active against nrf2/ARE, HSE, and MMP. These predictions suggest that most compounds are safe for shampoo applications, except for p-cymene, which requires further evaluation. This study provides preliminary insights for the development of safe and effective natural-based shampoos.

Abstract. Solekha R, Mahbubillah MA, Tamam MB, Sofialana F, As-Syifa AH, Djazuli A, Purnobasuki H. 2025. Pathogenesis-related proteins response in citronella grass (Cymbopogon nardus) infected by Curvularia andropogonis. Biodiversitas 26: 5485-5494. The development and growth of citronella grass (Cymbopogon nardus) are often hindered by Curvularia andropogonis fungal infection, which causes leaf disease. One key approach is to identify the expression of Pathogenesis-Related (PR)-17 and PKS type III defense proteins in citronella after C. andropogonis infection, serving as a model for counterattacking fungal infection. This study aimed to (i) determine chalcone synthase enzyme activity in C. nardus against C. andropogonis infection, (ii) identify the PR-17 response of C. nardus leaves, and (iii) identify the metabolic variations of flavonoid derivatives of C. nardus leaves. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography was carried out to analyze the enzyme activity. Protein identification was performed using sodium dodecyl sulfate. The variation of secondary metabolites was measured using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. The results indicated that the enzyme CHS activity in infected C. nardus leaves had increased significantly compared to healthy leaves. PR-17, PR-2, and PR-3 were only expressed in C. nardus infected with C. andropogonis. Profile of flavonoid-derived metabolites in C. nardus infected with C. andropogonis changed significantly, involving seven flavonoid-derived metabolites. The activation of CHS, accompanied by elevated expression of defense-related proteins and increased levels of flavonoid derivatives, creates a synergistic defense strategy in infected C. nardus. These responses strengthen the plant immunity, restrict fungal colonization, and enhance overall resistance, making them important indicators of plant-pathogen interactions.

Citronella (Cymbopogon nardus L.) is a plant that produces essential oil and has an antibacterial activity, which can be applied in post-harvest handling of fruit to extend shelf life. This study aimed to identify the combination of citronella with chitosan to inhibit the rate of decay in banana fruit. There were a total of six treatment methods: K: control, chitosan 1% (CH), chitosan 1%+citronella 0.5% (CH+EO 0.5), chitosan 1%+citronella 1% (CH+EO 1), chitosan 1%+citronella 0.04% (CH+EO 0.04) and citronella 0.1% (EO 0.1). The results showed that silk and raja bananas had an average weight loss of 37%, while the lowest weight loss was found in the CH+EO 0.5 treatment at 25.81% and the EO 0.1 treatment at 24.51%. In the control banana, there was a continuous increase in weight loss from the fourth day to the tenth day. The highest level of brightness in silk banana was shown by the L* value on day 4, which was the control treatment KS 72.18, followed by the treatment of CH+EO 0.5, 61.71, while the highest level of brightness L* plantain was KR, 49.34. The lowest level of brightness of silk banana was shown in the treatment of CH+EO 1, which was 28.79, and plantain CH+EO 0.5, 31.39. This study concluded that the combination of CH+EO 0.5 was the recommended treatment.

The high incidence of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) in Tenggilis Mejoyo Urban Village, Surabaya City, along with the community's dependence on chemical-based mosquito repellents, serves as the primary background for this community service activity. The objective of this program is to empower the community, particularly the women of Kader Surabaya Hebat (KSH), through education on DHF prevention and training in the production of a natural mosquito spray from lemongrass (Cymbopogon nardus) as a safe, environmentally friendly, and economically potential alternative. The implementation method involved a participatory socialization approach in collaboration with the local Public Health Center (Puskesmas) and a direct demonstration of the product-making process. The results showed a very positive response and high enthusiasm from the participants. There was an increased community awareness regarding the use of natural ingredients for disease prevention, and the participants successfully acquired the technical skills to produce the mosquito spray independently. Furthermore, a significant creative economy potential was identified, where the product can be produced at a low cost and sold at an affordable price to the wider community. In conclusion, this empowerment program successfully integrated a preventive health solution with entrepreneurial potential, creating a model of community self-reliance in facing the challenge of DHF while simultaneously opening new economic opportunities at the community level.

ABSTRACT Essential oils are composed of secondary metabolites derived from medicinal plants and have bioactive properties, such as antiparasitic activity. This study investigated the in vitro anti‐dactylogyridean efficacy of the Zingiber officinale , Curcuma longa and Cymbopogon nardus essential oils, as well as the acute toxicity for Colossoma macropomum (tambaqui). The majority chemical components of the essential oils of Z. officinale (α‐zingiberene, β‐sesquiphellandrene, limonene and geranial), C. longa (ar‐turmerone, α‐turmerone, α‐phellandrene, curlone and 1,8‐cineole) and C. nardus (geraniol, geranial and neral) were analysed. All the essential oils exhibited dose‐dependent efficacy against dactylogyrideans Anacanthorus spathulatus , Notozothecium janauachensis and Mymarothecium boegeri , and the mean effective concentration (EC 50 ) was 16.6 mg L −1 (3 h and 30 min) for Z. officinale essential oil, 30.9 mg L −1 (2 h and 15 min) for C. longa essential oil and 13.7 mg L −1 (30 min) for C. nardus essential oil. Effects of these oils on the ultrastructure of Anacanthorus dactylogyrideans exposed to the essential oils were also evaluated using scanning electron microscopy. This study shows for the first time the potential use of the Z. officinale , C. longa and C. nardus essential oils in controlling dactylogyridean parasites.

Background: Fungal infections are a common health problem in tropical countries, including Indonesia, where the hot and humid climate favors the growth of pathogenic microorganisms. One of the fungi that frequently causes infections in women is Candida albicans, the main agent responsible for vaginal discharge. Synthetic antibacterial and antifungal compounds often cause side effects, adverse events, relatively high costs, and the risk of fungal resistance due to excessive use. This situation has encouraged people to return to natural ingredients (“back to nature”) as safer, more effective, and more economical alternatives. One plant with strong potential as a natural antifungal agent is citronella (Cymbopogon nardus). This plant is widely known as a cooking spice, massage oil ingredient, and traditional herbal remedy, and it is abundantly available in the Hutaginjang area, North Tapanuli Regency. Objective: This study aimed to formulate and evaluate a feminine hygiene preparation containing citronella extract and to test its antifungal activity against Candida albicans. Method: The research was conducted experimentally. Results: The results showed that all formulations met the physical property standards set by SNI, with viscosity ranging from 2000–50,000 cps and pH between 4.0–5.0, which is suitable for the vaginal area. Antifungal testing revealed that inhibition zones increased with higher extract concentrations—10%, 15%, and 20% extracts produced inhibition zones of 10.5 mm, 13.3 mm, and 17.1 mm, respectively. The 60% extract yielded a 22.5 mm inhibition zone (categorized as very strong), approaching that of the positive control ketoconazole (29.1 mm). Statistical analysis (Shapiro-Wilk, ANOVA, Tukey HSD, Duncan) indicated that the data were normal, homogeneous, and showed significant differences between treatments. Conclusion: It can be concluded that higher concentrations of citronella extract are more effective in inhibiting the growth of Candida albicans.