Cymbal Array Research Articles

Equivalent Circuit to Analyze the Transmitting Characteristics of a Cymbal Array.

A cymbal transducer has a simple structure consisting of a piezoceramic disk and metallic caps and has broadband characteristics when built as an array. The finite element method (FEM) is generally used to analyze the characteristics of acoustic transducers. However, the FEM requires a longer analysis time as the model becomes larger, which makes it limited and less efficient for analyzing the cymbal array. In this study, a new equivalent circuit with higher efficiency and accuracy, comparable to that of the FEM, was proposed to analyze the performance of cymbal arrays. The equivalent circuit for the array was constructed by connecting the equivalent circuits of individual cymbal transducers in parallel with a radiation impedance matrix that included both the self- and mutual radiation characteristics of the array. The validity of the new equivalent circuit was verified by measuring the transmitting voltage response of a cymbal array specimen and comparing it with that calculated using the circuit. The comparison confirmed the efficiency of the equivalent circuit in analyzing the characteristics of the cymbal array. The proposed equivalent circuit can facilitate the design of a large array of cymbal transducers.

Selection of a Potting Material and Method for Broadband Underwater Cymbal Arrays.

Cymbal transducers are often used in arrays for underwater communication and detection systems. The working environment of a cymbal array is underwater; therefore, waterproofing, salt-corrosion prevention, and impact resistance are necessary for stable operation of the array. Hence, we simulated potting a cymbal array with 15 different rubber and epoxy materials available in the market, using the finite element method, and analyzed their effect on the transmitting voltage response spectrum of the array. From the analysis results, we selected the material that would achieve the widest frequency bandwidth, while preserving the structural stability of the array. A potting method corresponding to the selected material was suggested as well. This study provides guidelines for the selection of a potting material for use in underwater transducer arrays.

Development of a Dual-Layer Structure for Cymbal Transducer Arrays to Achieve a Wider Bandwidth.

Cymbal transducers are typically grouped and arranged in planar arrays. For projector arrays, a wide bandwidth on the transmitting voltage response (TVR) spectrum is required for better underwater communication and data transmission within a short time. The purpose of this study is to develop a wideband cymbal array by controlling the center-to-center (CTC) spacing between the cymbal transducers in the array. In the practical design of the array, due to the arrangement of elements in one layer, the minimum CTC spacing between the cymbals is constrained to the diameter of the cymbals in use. To overcome this limitation, we propose a new dual-layer array structure. Finite element analysis of the cymbal array showed that the bandwidth was generally inversely proportional to the CTC spacing. We explained the mechanism of this relationship using a theoretical analysis of the mutual radiation impedance between the cymbals in the array. Subsequently, we identified the optimum CTC spacing to achieve the widest possible bandwidth for the cymbal array. The validity of the wideband array design was verified through the fabrication and characterization of prototype arrays. We confirmed that the two-layered arrangement could significantly widen the bandwidth of the cymbal array while maintaining the TVR above a specified level.

New Equivalent Circuit of a Cymbal Transducer Incorporating the Third Harmonic Mode of Vibration

A cymbal transducer is composed of a pair of metal caps and a piezoceramic disk. Cymbal transducers arranged in an array exhibit broadband characteristics. Although the finite element method has been widely used for analyzing the transducer and its array, an equivalent circuit that allows efficient analysis was recently developed. However, this previously reported circuit was based solely on the fundamental vibration mode of the transducer, and is thus unsuitable for analyzing the broadband characteristics of the cymbal array. Therefore, to overcome this limitation, a new broadband equivalent circuit for the cymbal transducer was devised in the present study. The new circuit was constructed by incorporating terms related to the <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$3^{\text {rd}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> harmonic vibration mode of the cap and corresponding radiation impedance into the existing equivalent circuit. The validity of this novel circuit was verified by comparing the analysis results with those obtained from the measurement of acoustic characteristics exhibited by a cymbal-transducer specimen. Compared with the previous circuit, the new equivalent circuit allows more accurate analysis and design of a cymbal transducer over a wider frequency range.

Design of a Broadband Array Pattern of Underwater Cymbal Transducers.

Cymbal transducers are frequently used as an array rather than a single element because of their high quality factor and low energy conversion efficiency. When used as an array, cymbal transducers are likely to have a big change in their frequency characteristics due to the interaction with neighboring elements. In this study, we designed an array pattern of cymbal transducers to achieve a wide frequency bandwidth using this property. First, cymbal transducers with specific center frequencies were designed. Next, a 2 × 2 planar array was constructed with the designed transducers, where dielectric polarity directions of the transducers were divided into two cases (i.e., same and different). For the array, the effect of the difference in the center frequencies and the spacing between the transducers on the acoustic characteristics of the entire array was analyzed. Based on the results, the structural pattern of the array was optimized to have the maximum fractional bandwidth while maintaining the transmitting voltage response over a given requirement. The design validity was verified by making cymbal array prototypes, followed by measuring their performances and comparing them with that of the design.

Percutaneous Delivery of Antihypertensive Agents: Advances and Challenges.

Hypertension remains a significant risk factor for several cardiovascular disorders including coronary artery disease and heart failure. Despite the large armamentarium of drugs available for the management of high blood pressure, low oral availability is an ongoing challenge. Researchers are constantly developing alternative drug delivery systems. This review focuses on the transcutaneous delivery of antihypertensive agents. The use of diverse technologies for the delivery of specific antihypertensive agents is emphasized. The advances made and the challenges encountered are highlighted. Several transdermal drug delivery strategies are employed for the transport of this group of therapeutic agents across the skin and the most widely used techniques include microneedles, iontophoresis, sonophoresis, and chemical penetration enhancers. Each of these methods has benefits and limitations, and there are ongoing attempts by scientists to address the shortcomings. For instance, skin irritation continues to be a major challenge with iontophoretic transport while the quantity of a medication that can be incorporated into dissolving microneedles is limited. With skin permeation enhancers, concerns relating to cytotoxicity and irritation are common. Even though the use of ultrasound is exciting, this mode of delivery is also accompanied by challenges such as the design of a battery system that is potent enough to drive a low-frequency sonophoretic cymbal array, while still being portable enough to function as a wearable device. Although most researchers report enhanced drug delivery with the aforementioned methods, it is important to deliver therapeutically useful doses of these medications.

Conformal cymbal array: A broadband, wide beamwidth underwater acoustic projector

The development of “cymbal”-based acoustic source technology in recent years has been an essential advancement in improving NRL's capability for shallow-water acoustics. The cymbal's unique attributes of high acoustic output from a lightweight, thin profile configurable array is a central technology in target identification programs at NRL. This talk will present a review of cymbal array development over the past ten years. It will start with conventional piezoelectric ceramic (PZT) cymbal elements and end with current research on advanced cymbal designs utilizing new formulations of piezoelectric single crystal materials. In particular, the contributions of Kim Benjamin to the initial development work of the conformal array design will be highlighted. [Work sponsored by the Naval Research Laboratory.]

Research on Fabrication Techniques and Performance Analysis for 3×3 Cymbal Transducer Array

The single array element of cymbal transducer has a low transmitting power, poor directivity and narrow bandwidth, which however can be improved, even overcome by array forming. First of all, 9 cymbal transducer array elements were designed and made on the basis of the research results obtained in the early stage, and were assembled into a 3x3 array by using a set of stable and reliable array forming techniques developed from the research. The array was shaped by casting with organic silica-gel and then getting cured. The array was tested in air for resonance frequency and equivalent circuit parameters demonstrating the stability of array forming techniques. The array and a single array element were also tested in anechoic water-tank for transmitting, receiving and directivity performances, and the result indicates that, the array forming by elements can strengthen the transmitting power and improve the directivity effect, but may reduce the free-field receiving sensitivity. The research has a great significance to the development of a new super multi-element cymbal array.

Temperature mapping near the surface of ultrasound transducers using susceptibility- compensated magnetic resonance imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based temperature mapping very close to the surface of an ultrasound transducer is not possible due to the large magnetic susceptibility- induced image artifacts that arise from the materials used in transducer construction. Here, it is shown in phantoms that "susceptibility-compensated" MRI sequences can be used to measure thermal increases approximately 1 mm from the surface of a 4-element cymbal array transducer, which has been used widely for noninvasive transdermal drug delivery. The estimated temperatures agree well with those measured using thermocouples.

Noninvasive ultrasonic glucose sensing with large pigs (approximately 200 pounds) using a lightweight cymbal transducer array and biosensors.

To prevent complications in diabetes, the proper management of blood glucose levels is essential. Since conventional glucose meters require pricking fingers or other areas of the skin, a noninvasive method for monitoring blood glucose levels is desired. Using a lightweight cymbal transducer array, this study was conducted to noninvasively determine the glucose levels of pigs having a similar size to humans. In vivo experiments using eight pigs (approximately 200 pounds) were performed in five groups. A cymbal array with four biosensors was attached to the axillary area of the pig. The array was operated at 20 kHz at special peak-temporal peak intensity (I(sptp)) equal to 50 or 100 mW/cm(2) for 5, 10, or 20 minutes. After the ultrasound exposure, glucose concentrations of the interstitial fluid were determined using biosensors. For comparison, glucose levels of blood samples collected from the ear vein were measured by a commercial glucose meter. In comparison, glucose levels determined by a cymbal array and biosensor system were close to those measured by a glucose meter. After a 20-minute ultrasound exposure at I(sptp) = 100 mW/cm(2), the average glucose level determined by the ultrasound system was 175 +/- 7 mg/dl, which is close to 166 +/- 5 mg/dl measured by the glucose meter. Results indicate the feasibility of using a cymbal array for noninvasive glucose sensing on pigs having a similar size to humans. Further studies on the ultrasound conditions, such as frequency, intensity, and exposure time, will be continued for effective glucose sensing.

Dose comparison of ultrasonic transdermal insulin delivery to subcutaneous insulin injection

Prior studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of noninvasive transdermal insulin delivery using a cymbal transducer array. In this study the physiologic response to ultrasound mediated transdermal insulin delivery is compared to that of subcutaneously administered insulin. Anesthetized rats (350-550 g) were divided into four groups of four animals; one group representing ultrasound mediated insulin delivery and three representing subcutaneously administered insulin (0.15, 0.20, and 0.25 U/kg). The cymbal array was operated for 60 minutes at 20 kHz with 100 mW/cm2 spatial-peak temporal-peak intensity and a 20% duty cycle. The blood glucose level was determined at the beginning of the experiment and, following insulin administration, every 15 minutes for 90 minutes for both the ultrasound and injection groups. The change in blood glucose from baseline was compared between groups. When administered by subcutaneous injection at insulin doses of 0.15 and 0.20 U/kg, there was little change in the blood glucose levels over the 90 minute experiment. Following subcutaneous administration of insulin at a dose of 0.25 U/kg, blood glucose decreased by 190 +/- 96 mg/dl (mean +/- SD) at 90 minutes. The change in blood glucose following ultrasound mediated insulin delivery was -262 +/- 40 mg/dl at 90 minutes. As expected, the magnitude of change in blood glucose between the three injection groups was dependant on the dose of insulin administered. The change in blood glucose in the ultrasound group was greater than that observed in the injection groups suggesting that a higher effective dose of insulin was delivered.

Rectangular cymbal arrays for improved ultrasonic transdermal insulin delivery

Circular cymbal ultrasound arrays have been shown to be effective in delivering therapeutic levels of insulin in rats, rabbits, and pigs. To improve delivery efficiency, a rectangular cymbal design was desired in order to achieve a broader spatial intensity field without increasing the size of the device or the spatial-peak temporal-peak intensity (I(SPTP)). With a similar intensity (50 mWcm(2)), the goal was to determine if the 3x1 rectangular cymbal array could perform significantly better than the 3x3 circular array for glucose reduction in hyperglycemic rabbits. Rabbit experiments were performed using three groups: nonsonicated control (n=3), ultrasound exposure using a circular cymbal array (n=3), and ultrasound exposure using a rectangular cymbal array (n=3). Rabbits were anesthetized and a water tight reservoir that held the insulin was fastened on the rabbit's thigh. At the beginning of the experiment and every 15 min for 90 min, the blood glucose level was determined. For comparison between individual rabbits, the absolute level is normalized by subtracting out the baseline in order to arrive at the change in glucose level. For the control group, the normalized glucose level increased (more hyperglycemic) to +80.0+/-28.8 mgdl (mean+/-SEM). Using the circular array, the glucose level decreased to -146.7+/-17.8 mgdl at 90 min. However, using the rectangular cymbal array, the glucose decreased faster and to a level of -200.8+/-5.9 mgdl after 90 min. These results indicated the feasibility of the rectangular cymbal array as an improved device for drug delivery.

Ultrasound Mediated Transdermal Insulin Delivery in Pigs Using a Lightweight Transducer

In previous studies, ultrasound mediated transdermal drug delivery has shown a promising potential as a method for noninvasive drug administration. For prospective future human application, this study was designed to determine the feasibility of lightweight cymbal transducer array as a practical device for noninvasive transdermal insulin delivery in large pigs. Six Yorkshire pigs (100-140 lbs) were divided into two groups. As the control (n = 3), the first group did not receive any ultrasound exposure with the insulin. The second group (n = 3) was treated with ultrasound and insulin at 20 kHz with an I(sptp) = 100 mW/cm(2) at a 20% duty cycle for 60 min. With the pigs in lateral recumbency after anesthesia, the ultrasound transducer with insulin was placed on the axillary area of the pig. At the beginning and every 15 min up to 90 min, the blood glucose level was determined using a glucose monitoring system. To compare the results of individual animals, the change of blood glucose level was normalized to each animal's initial glucose value at the start of the experiment. Although each animal had a different initial glucose level, the mean and standard error for the six animals was 146 +/- 13 mg/dl. For the control group, the blood glucose level increased to 31 +/- 21 mg/dl compared to the initial baseline over the 90 min experiment. However for the ultrasound with insulin treated group, the glucose level decreased to -72 +/- 5 mg/dl at 60 min (p < 0.05) and continued to decrease to -91 +/- 23 mg/dl in 90 min (p < 0.05). The results indicate the feasibility of ultrasound mediated transdermal insulin delivery using the cymbal transducer array in animal with a similar size and weight to a human. Based on these result, the cymbal array has potential as a practical ultrasound system for noninvasive transdermal insulin delivery for diabetes management.

Ferroelectric transducer arrays for transdermal insulin delivery

The goal of this research was the development of a portable therapeutic device for the treatment of diabetes. A 3×3 cymbal array has been successfully tested in noninvasive insulin delivery experiments. The cymbal is a composite flextensional transducer constructed from a poled PZT ceramic and shaped metal endcaps that amplify the transducer motions by two orders of magnitude. Nine cymbals are wired in parallel and potted in polyurethane to form the flat panel arrays. When driven near resonance (20 kHz), the array generated a low intensity acoustic beam of 100 mW/cm2. Animal experiments on hyperglycemic rats and rabbits demonstrated the ultrasonic enhancement of transdermal insulin delivery.

Composite Transducer Arrays for the Treatment of Diabetes

A portable transdermal drug delivery system using a composite transducer array has been designed to promote insulin transmission through the skin using ultrasound. Previous investigators used large, heavy sonicators in this type of research. The aim of this study is to demonstrate ultrasound‐mediated transdermal insulin delivery using small cymbal arrays. The cymbal transducer design was chosen because of its light, compact structure and low resonance frequency in water. To increase the spatial ultrasound field for drug delivery through the skin, 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 cymbal arrays were constructed. The performance of these arrays was tested under similar conditions. An ultrasound‐enhanced noninvasive glucose measurement system is also under development, and a comparison with conventional glucose meters was performed. The goal is to develop a noninvasive sensor–actuator array for the treatment of disease.

Glucose measurements with sensors and ultrasound

Accurate monitoring of the blood glucose level in diabetics is essential in preventing complications. Generally, conventional over-the-counter glucose meters require frequent painful finger punctures to obtain samples, which makes a noninvasive method preferable. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate that glucose levels can be measured transdermally with the combination of the low-profile cymbal array and an electrochemical glucose sensor consisting of amperometric electrodes and a novel glucose oxidase hydrogel. Interstitial fluid glucose concentrations can be determined with the electrochemical glucose sensor after the skin is made permeable to glucose by ultrasound (US) (20 kHz) with the thin (< 7 mm) and light (< 22 g) cymbal array. Using this array to deliver insulin into hyperglycemic rats, our previous experiments demonstrated that blood glucose levels would decrease 233.3 mg/dl with 5 min of US exposure. With the sensor and array, our goal was to determine the glucose levels of hyperglycemic rats noninvasively and evaluate the possible bioeffects. A total of 12 anesthetized rats were placed into two groups (US exposure group and control group) and the array (I SPTP = 100 mW/cm 2) with a saline reservoir operating for 20 min was affixed to the abdomen. The array was removed and an electrochemical glucose sensor was placed on the exposed area to determine the glucose concentrations through the skin. Comparison was made using a commercial glucose meter with the blood collected from a jugular vein. The average blood glucose level determined by the sensor was 356.0 ± 116.6 mg/dl, and the glucose level measured by the commercial glucose meter was 424.8 ± 59.1 mg/dl. These results supported the use of this novel system consisting of the electrochemical glucose sensor and the cymbal array for glucose monitoring. (E-mail: nbs@engr.psu.edu)

Noninvasive Ultrasonic Transdermal Insulin Delivery in Rabbits Using the Light-Weight Cymbal Array

Recent studies have shown that ultrasound-mediated transdermal drug delivery offers a promising potential for noninvasive drug administration. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate ultrasonic transdermal delivery of insulin in vivo using rabbits with a novel, low-profile two-by-two ultrasound array based on the cymbal transducer. As a practical device, the cymbal array (f = 20 kHz) was 37 x 37 x 7 mm3 in size and weighed less than 22 g. Using the same array on hyperglycemic rats, our previous experiments demonstrated that blood glucose would decrease 233.3 +/- 22.2 mg/dL in 90 min from 5 min of pulsed ultrasound exposure. With a similar intensity (Isptp = 100 mW/cm2, 20% duty cycle), our goal was to determine if the same effect could be achieved with rabbits. Experiments were performed in 16 New Zealand White rabbits (weighing 2.7-3.4 kg) divided into three groups: two controls and one ultrasound with insulin exposure. The rabbits were first anesthetized, and their thigh area was shaved for the exposure area. While the animal was lying in the lateral recumbent position, a 1-mm-thick, water-tight standoff (reservoir) that held insulin or saline was fastened between the thigh and the ultrasound array. The first control group (control 1: insulin-no ultrasound) had insulin placed in the reservoir with no ultrasound exposure, while the second control group (control 2: saline-ultrasound) had saline in the reservoir with ultrasound operating at Isptp = 100 mW/cm2 for 60 min. The third rabbit group (ultrasound-insulin) was subjected to insulin with ultrasound exposure for 60 min (Isptp = 100 mW/cm2). At the beginning of the experiment and every 15 min for 90 min, 0.3 mL of blood was collected from the ear vein to determine the blood glucose level (in mg/dL) using a glucose monitoring system. For comparison between individual rabbits, the change in the blood glucose level was normalized to a baseline value. The insulin reservoir was removed with the array after the ultrasound was turned off at 60 min of exposure. For both controls, insulin-no ultrasound and saline-ultrasound, the blood glucose level varied from the initial baseline by approximately +75 mg/dL. However, for the ultrasound-insulin group, the glucose level was found to decrease to -132.6 +/- 35.7 mg/dL from the initial baseline in 60 min. Even after the array and insulin reservoir were removed, the blood glucose level of ultrasound-insulin group continued to decrease to -208.1 +/- 29 mg/dL from the initial baseline. These results indicate the feasibility of using a low-cost, lightweight cymbal array for enhanced transdermal insulin delivery using ultrasound.

Short ultrasound exposure times for noninvasive insulin delivery in rats using the lightweight cymbal array

The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the feasibility of using short ultrasound exposure times to noninvasively deliver insulin with a lightweight (<22 g), low-profile (37 x 37 x 7 mm3) cymbal array (f = 20 kHz). Using hyperglycemic rats, previous experiments using the array demonstrated that blood glucose would decrease approximately 250 mg/dl from 60 and 20 minutes of pulsed ultrasound exposure for transdermal insulin delivery. Using a similar intensity (Isptp = 100 mW/cm2, 20% duty cycle), the goal was to determine if the same effect can be achieved with only 5 minutes of ultrasound exposure. For these experiments, 20 Sprague Dawley rats were anesthetized and shaved, and a 1-mm watertight standoff reservoir that held the insulin or saline was placed between the rat's abdomen and the ultrasound array. At the beginning of the experiment and every 30 minutes, 0.3 ml of blood was collected from the jugular vein to determine the blood glucose level (milligrams per deciliter) for a total of 90 minutes. For comparison purposes between the rats, the change in the glucose level for each rat was normalized to a baseline (i.e., 0 mg/dl). The first control group used insulin in the reservoir without any ultrasound. The second control group had saline in the reservoir with ultrasound operating at Isptp = 100 mW/cm2 for 60 minutes. For the noncontrol experiments, the third group used insulin with ultrasound exposure for 10 minutes. The last group used insulin with ultrasound operating with a 5-minute exposure to examine the effects of using short ultrasound exposure times on delivery. For the 10- and 5-minute ultrasound exposure groups, the glucose level was found to decrease from the baseline to -174.6 +/- 67.2 and -200.4 +/- 43.4 mg/dl measured after 1 hour, respectively. These results indicated that ultrasound exposure times do not need to be long to deliver a clinically significant insulin dose to reduce a high blood glucose level.

Short Ultrasound Exposure Times for Noninvasive Insulin Delivery in Rats Using the Lightweight Cymbal Array

Short Ultrasound Exposure Times for Noninvasive Insulin Delivery in Rats Using the Lightweight Cymbal Array

Ultrasound-mediated transdermal in vivo transport of insulin with low-profile cymbal arrays.

The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility of ultrasound (US)-mediated transdermal delivery of insulin in vivo using rats with a novel, low profile two-by-two US array based on the "cymbal" (due to its unique shape) transducer. As a practical device, the cymbal array (f = 20 kHz) was 37 x 37 x 7 mm in size, and weighed less than 22 g. A total of 20 Sprague-Dawley rats (350 to 450 g) were divided into four groups, two controls and two US exposure, with five rats in each group. The rats were anesthetized and shaved; a water-tight standoff reservoir, which held the insulin or saline, was sealed against the rat's abdomen and the US array. At the beginning of the experiment and every 30 min for 90 min, 0.3 mL of blood was collected from the jugular vein to determine the blood glucose level (mg/dL). For comparison between the rats, the change in the glucose level for each rat was normalized to a baseline (i.e., 0 mg/dL). The first control group used insulin in the reservoir with no US and the second control group had saline in the reservoir with US operating at I(SPTP) = 100 mW/cm(2) for 60 min. For the experiments, the third group employed insulin with US exposure for 60 min (I(SPTP) = 100 mW/cm(2)), whereas the last group used insulin with US operating with a 20-min exposure (I(SPTP) = 100 mW/cm(2)) to examine the effects of time on delivery. For the 60-min US exposure group, the glucose level was found to decrease from the baseline to -267.5 +/- 61.9 mg/dL in 1 h. Moreover, to study the effects of US exposure time on insulin delivery, the 20-min group had essentially the same result as the 60-min exposure at a similar intensity, which indicates that the expose time does not need to be as long for delivery.