Cueva De Research Articles

Gypsum-carbonate speleothems from Cueva de las Espadas (Naica mine, Mexico): mineralogy and palaeohydrogeological implications

Some of the most outstanding hypogenic gypsum speleothems worldwide have been recently discovered in the Naica mines. The Cueva de las Espadas (Swords Cave), which lies at 120 m depth, hosts a rare type of speleothem called “espada” (“sword”). This study contributes to the understanding of the mineralogical composition of these singular speleothems, by means of their examination using micro-Raman spectroscopy, FT-IR spectroscopy and EDX microprobe. Our data revealed a complex mineralogy comprising a high-purity selenite core covered by several layers of calcite, aragonite and gypsum. Solid inclusions of polymetallic oxides (Mn-Pb-Zn) and graphite were also detected. The position of the water table during the genesis of the “espada” speleothems (over the past 60 kyr) was deduced from their mineralogy. Water level fluctuations at around -120 m depth led to environmental changes within the Cueva de las Espadas. The selenite core and gypsum layers were precipitated under biphasic (water-rock) conditions when the cave was submerged under hydrothermal water. The aragonite precipitation required triphasic (air-water-rock) conditions and occurred when the water table intercepted the cave, allowing the CO2 exchange necessary for carbonate precipitation. Solid inclusions were trapped in an aerobic environment when the gypsum-aragonite boundary condition occurred. A thin calcite layer was precipitated under vadose conditions after the water table definitively moved out of the cave.

A new species of the schizomid genus Stenochrus (Schizomida: Hubbardiidae) from Mexico

A new Mexican species of Stenochrus Chamberlin, 1922. Stenochrus valdezi new species, is described from Cueva de SanFrancisco in Chiapas based on adult male and female specimens. With the description of this species, there are 17 species from Mexico, being the country with the highest diversity of species of the genus Stenochrus worldwide.

Molecular Identification and Description of the Female of Nothoaspis reddelli (Ixodida: Argasidae) from A Cave in Southeastern Mexico

Nothoaspis reddelli Keirans and Clifford, 1975 , was described from 3 males collected in Grutas de Xtacumbilxunaán, Campeche, Mexico, although females have remained undescribed for 37 yr. Recently adult females of this species were collected from Cueva de Villa Luz ( = Cueva de las Sardinas, Cueva del Azufre), in Tapijulapa, Tabasco, Mexico. Here we present a morphological description of the female stage, together with 16S rDNA sequences that confirm the conspecificity of our female, male, and nymphal specimens. The female integument of the anterior portion of the dorsal surface is smooth (nothoaspis), appearing to consist of 3 large "subunits," 1 anterior and 2 posterior, each with a small sublateral "subunit" on either side. The remaining dorsal covered integument is a cell-like configuration. The hood is large and bluntly rounded, and visible dorsally. The spiracular plate is oval. It possesses 1 pair of posthypostomal setae. The palpal trochanter has 1 pair of setae and a 5/5 hypostome decreasing to 4/4 at the apex. There is a single central pore at the base of the hypostome.

Baroque Horrors: Roots of the Fantastic in the Age of Curiosities (review)

Castillo, David R. Baroque Horrors: Roots of Fantastic in Age of Curiosities. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 2010. 177 pp.David R. Castillo's Baroque Horrors aims to trace roots of fantastic to Iberian Renaissance and Baroque. The group of works brought into discussion ranges from exemplary and baroque novelas of Miguel de Cervantes and Maria de Zayas to earlier works by Antonio de Torquemada (Jardin de flores curiosas, 1570), Miguel de Luna (Historia verdadera del rey don Rodrigo, 1592), Julian de Medrano (La silva curiosa, 1583), Juan de Pina (Casos prodigiosos y cueva encantada, 1628) and Cristobal Lozano (La cueva de Hercules, 1667). Underlying book's arguments are notions that fantastic springs from tension between rational and analogic views of world during early modern period (46) and that fantastic is used to subvert social codes.Chapter 1 analyzes a host of miscellanies written in Spain, as this successful genre reflects not only curiosity of Renaissance readers also transformation into material- literary curiosities- of numerous myths and stories inherited from classics and from folkloric sources (40). Castillo, completing Giovanni Allegra's work on Jardin de flores curiosas, asserts that folkloric tales included in miscellanies are a more convincing origin of fantastic than classical myths and histories, but miscellanies often come closest to unsettling quality of modern fantasy when they incorporate contemporary folkloric material (40). The second connection between miscellanies and fantastic is the oscillation between acceptance of marvelous and rational analysis of case (42). The third link is fact that early modern culture of curiosities relates to forms of epochal melancholia and profound anxiety about openness and chaotic structure of universe (43). Castillo invokes notion of vacuum in Giordano Bruno's work and in Galileo's nocturnal horror as two early modern products of such visions of chaos. But, according to Castillo, all this unsettled thinking became productive in fantastic ways: Galileo brought with it not just new walls of reason also new windows of imagination and, with them, brand new vistas of nightmarish landscapes as well as Utopian dreams (46). To prove his point, Castillo studies folkloric tales included in three miscellanies Jardin de flores curiosas, La silva curiosa, and La cueva de Hercules.In chapter 2, Castillo links sensationalistic representation of awesome forces (whether natural, preternatural, or supernatural) to exaggerated moralism and moral uncertainty in Baroque (92). One of most exciting points of this chapter is Castillo's observation that some morbid baroque stories, told through devices of epistemological relativism and ethical uncertainty, address fact that raw life content ... makes no sense (95). As a result unjustified violence and macabre express anxiety caused by new scientific epistemology and knowledge.In chapter 3, author explores interconnections between household, female horror, physical violence, subversive pornography, and body politics in Maria de Zayas's Desenganos amorosos (1647). …

Microbial activity and biogeochemical cycling in a nutrient-rich meromictic acid pit lake

Microbial activity, abundance and biomass, and biogeochemical cycling of iron, sulphur and carbon were studied in the extremely acidic (pH 2.5–4.3), meromictic, nutrient-rich pit lake Cueva de la Mora in Spain. The goal was to find out (1) if the relatively high nutrient content influenced plankton abundance in the water column and alkalinity-producing microbial processes in the sediments compared to other acid pit lakes, and (2) if sediments in the shallow, mixed and the deep, stagnant parts of the lake exhibited differences in microbial activities and geochemical sediment composition related to meromixis. We hypothesised that redox cycling was more intense in the mixed part and higher amounts of reduced components would accumulate in the stagnant part. Especially phytoplankton biomass, CO 2 production, and sulphate reduction were indeed higher than reported from typical acid pit lakes and were rather within the range of neutral or weakly acidic lakes, which can be attributed to the relatively high nutrient contents of Cueva de la Mora. Even in the monimolimnion, anaerobic processes occurred mainly in the sediments. Sediments from the mixed and stagnant parts of the lake differed markedly in their biogeochemistry. Mixolimnetic sediments showed high iron and sulphate reduction rates, and they appeared to undergo substantial recycling, as supported by reactive Fe, relation between gross sulphate reduction rate and net accumulation of reduced sulphur, and viable counts of iron and sulphur bacteria. Monimolimnetic sediments exhibited lower anaerobic microbial activities, and surprisingly they accumulated more Fe(II) than mixolimnetic sediments, but less reduced sulphur and carbon. This might be explained by a strong separation of the two water bodies, resulting in comparably less input of energy (light) and allochthonous matter into the monimolimnion. Regarding the total extent of alkalinity-generating microbial processes, their net effect is not sufficient to neutralise the lake within decades.

Four new species of the genus Pseudocellus (Arachnida: Ricinulei: Ricinoididae) from Mexico

Four new species of ricinuleids are described: Pseudocellus chankin from caves and surface collections in southern Mexico (Chiapas & Tabasco) and Guatemala (Petén); Pseudocellus jarocho from a single surface collection in Veracruz, México; Pseudocellus oztotl, a troglobitic and troglomorphic species from Cueva de Las Tres Quimeras in the Sierra Negra, Puebla, Mexico; and Pseudocellus platnicki, also troglobitic and troglomorphic, known from a single cave in Coahuila, Mexico. The number of known species in the genus increases to 24, and Mexican species to 14. An identification key for adult males of the species found in Mexico and southern USA is provided.

Zoonotic and Human Parasites of Inhabitants of Cueva de Los Muertos Chiquitos, Rio Zape Valley, Durango, Mexico

We present the first reconstruction of the parasitoses among the people of the Loma San Gabriel culture, as represented by 36 coprolites excavated from the Cueva de los Muertos Chiquitos in Durango, Mexico. The coprolites date to approximately 1,400-yr-ago. Species identified based on eggs recovered include the trematode Echinostoma sp., the tapeworms Hymenolepis sp. and Dipylidium caninum , and the nematodes Ancylostoma duodenale, Enterobius vermicularis, and Trichuris trichiura. After rehydration and screening, 2 methods were used to recover eggs from these samples including spontaneous sedimentation and flotation. Samples were analyzed by 3 different laboratories for independent verification and comparison of methods. Spontaneous sedimentation resulted in the discovery of hymenolepidid eggs that were not found with flotation. Sedimentation was a more-sensitive indicator of prevalence as well. The modified method of flotation permitted estimation of egg concentration and resulted in the detection of a few specimens not found by sedimentation. The results of both methods showed that 19 (of 36) coprolites contained helminth eggs. Our results detected the presence of pathogenic helminths including hookworms and whipworms. The cestodes found do not cause severe pathology in humans. The early dates of hookworm and whipworm, relative to other findings in the southwest United States, indicate that these parasites arrived relatively late in prehistory in Arizona and New Mexico, probably moving into the area with travelers from Mesoamerica.

Upper Paleolithic rabbit exploitation and landscape patchiness: The Dordogne vs. Mediterranean Spain

In inland France, diets dominated by the wild European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) enter the archaeological record around the Pleistocene–Holocene transition, whereas zooarchaeological faunas from Mediterranean Spain typically contain rabbit in abundance much earlier in the Upper Paleolithic. This paper compares data from these two times and places, drawing particularly on faunal data from the Soultrean site of Cueva de Ambrosio (Almería Province, Spain) and the Magdalenian site of Moulin du Roc (Dordogne, France), to consider biogeographic, environmental, and cultural factors that might contribute to the development of rabbit-dominated diets in southwestern Europe.

7 year operation of a BWRO plant with raw water from a coastal aquifer for agricultural irrigation

This paper will show the most relevant aspects in the 7 year operation period in the management of the O&M (operation and maintenance) at a BWRO (brackish water reverse osmosis) plant at Cuevas de Almanzora, Almeria, Spain. This plant has a current capacity of water production of 25,000 m3/d and it was built to supplying agricultural consumers in the proximity of the plant. Cuevas de Almanzora BWRO plant is an exceptional plant in many aspects: 1) It is a plant working with brackish water but it was designed to be able to working with seawater with regards to materials, qualities and pressures (except the high pressure pump), and it could even be converted easily into a seawater plant; 2) Extensive hydrogeological studies have been completed allowing the control of aquifer exploitation and water extraction in the seawater-brackish water interface; 3) Water is distributed to different agricultural users with different water quality requirements (it produces “a la carte” water); 4) RO trains include inter stage energy recovery device to improve the hydraulic equilibrium between stages and reducing the energy consumption. This paper will present the following aspects: BWRO plant description; Results of the aquifer hydrogeological studies for the determination of saline intrusion. Conclusions and operation guidelines; Operation of the plant, results, operational problems arising from increasing salinity and specifically from sulphates; Description of the planned changes at the plant to allowing a possible future conversion into an SWRO plant; O&M costs.

Schwertmannite and hydrobasaluminite: A re-evaluation of their solubility and control on the iron and aluminium concentration in acidic pit lakes

Abstract The solubility of schwertmannite and hydrobasaluminite and their control on the concentration of Fe(III) and Al in acid-sulfate aqueous systems has been re-examined through a series of titration experiments with waters from two acidic pit lakes (Cueva de la Mora and San Telmo) from the Iberian Pyrite Belt in SW Spain. The work also includes a microscopic study (SEM–EDS) of natural Fe(III) precipitates found in the water column of both lakes. The microscopic study of natural precipitates confirms that schwertmannite constitutes a major control of Fe3+ concentration in the lakes at pH ∼ 3.0, whereas jarosite may also be abundant at near-surface conditions and is typical of low pH ( SO 4 2 - and H+ in solution, allowed the calculation of ionic activity products (log IAP) and solubility product constants (log Ksp) for the precipitating phases. The solubility product constants have been deduced by two independent approaches. The first one averages ionic activity products obtained for a given pH range, whereas the second one deduces log Ksp values from linear regression lines in ion activity-pH plots. Both methods tend to converge and give log Ksp = 18.8 ± 1.7 for schwertmannite, and log Ksp = 23.9 ± 0.7 for hydrobasaluminite. In the pH range 5–9, the results are compatible with additional solubility controls from ferrihydrite and an amorphous to nano-crystalline Al(OH)3 phase on the aqueous concentrations of Fe and Al, respectively, although formation of these latter compounds could not be demonstrated. The present work confirms the results originally obtained for schwertmannite solubility and reports a reliable solubility product constant for freshly precipitated hydrobasaluminite. Integration of the resulting log Ksp values in the MINTEQ.V4 database and the PHREEQCI geochemical modeling program provides a precise description of the geochemical behaviour of Fe and Al in these acidic pit lakes.

Geochemistry and mineralogy of surface pyritic tailings impoundments at two mining sites of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (SW Spain)

Two pyritic tailings impoundments located in two mining areas of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (Cueva de la Mora and Minas de Ríotinto-Zarandas) were selected to asses their potential environmental impact. Mineralogical (XRD diffraction study), physico-chemical characterization (colour, particle size, pH, acid–base account, total Fe, As, Cu, Pb and Zn) as well as a speciation study (by means of a seven-step sequential extraction procedure) were performed in superficial (0–20 cm) tailings samples. Arsenic and metal contents in soils around the tailings impoundments were also studied. Zarandas dam, a reclaimed impoundment, which has been limed, partially topsoiled and planted, has supported and allowed the growth of pine trees and other plants for many years. The surface of this impoundment can be considered very acid but nonacid forming. Although total As and metal concentrations were relatively high, it is not possible to conclude that the Zarandas tailings have polluted the surrounding soils. Tailings in Cueva de la Mora showed high total and easily mobilizable concentration of toxic elements. The net neutralization potential was strongly negative as a consequence of the acid generation caused by the sulphide oxidation, the presence of secondary acid-generating minerals and the absence of neutralizing materials. Coquimbite and rhomboclase efflorescences formed during the Mediterranean dry summers on the surface of this impoundment contained very high levels of soluble As, Cu and Zn that were easily dissolved and released to the running water in the first rains of autumn.

Los punzones metálicos en los contextos funerarios argáricos: los casos de Fuente Álamo (Cuevas de Almazora, Almería) y la Cuesta del Negro (Purullena, Granada)

La Cultura de El Argar marca el comienzo de la Edad del Bronce en el Sudeste peninsular caracterizada por enterramientos en las áreas de habitación, bajo el suelo de las casas habitualmente. Siempre inhumaciones en posición flexionada, contienen por lo general solo un individuo que puede acompañarse en ocasiones de ajuar. Es dentro del análisis de éste último donde, en el presente artículo, se realiza una aproximación a la variedad de los punzones metálicos a partir del análisis morfométrico de los casos documentados en las sepulturas de los yacimientos de Fuente Álamo (Cuevas de Almanzona, Almería) y La Cuesta del Negro (Purullena, Granada). Los resultados muestran que las características de estos objetos reflejan que no son idénticos, a pesar de que habitualmente se integren bajo un mismo grupo denominado punzones, y que esas diferencias tienen una fuerte relación con la categoría social del difunto, tal y como habitualmente se ha referido a partir de otros indicadores (del ajuar, del contenedor funerario o de los mismos inhumados).

Evolución de lagos proglaciales embalsados por hielo en Última Esperanza, Chile: Implicancias de la explosión volcánica tardiglacial R1 del volcán Reclús, Zona Volcánica Austral Andina.

Newly described outcrops, excavations and sediment cores from the region of Ultima Esperanza, Magallanes, contain tephra derived from the large late-glacial explosive R1 eruption of the Reclus volcano in the Andean Austral Volcanic Zone. New radiocarbon dates associated to these deposits refine previous estimates of the age, to 14.9 cal kyrs BP (12,670±240 14C yrs BP), and volume, to >5 km3, of this tephra. The geographic and stratigraphic distribution of R1 also place constraints on the evolution of the ice-dammed proglacial lake that existed east of the cordillera in this area between the termination of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the Holocene. This proglacial lake generated wavecut terraces, and also caves, such as the Cueva de Milodon, along the highest prominent terrace. The current elevation of these terraces depends on the total amount of post-glacial isostatic rebound, which is unknown. Due to differential rebound, the highest prominent lake terraces decrease in height from west-to-east, from ~170 m a.s.l. on Peninsula Antonio Varas west of Seno Ultima Esperanza, to ~150 m a.s.l. around Lago Sofia, and down to ~125 m a.s.l. along their easternmost margin. The presence of thick deposits of R1 tephra in some of the caves around Lago Sofia implies that the proglacial lake had already dropped below its highest level prior to the time of this eruption, and, in fact, even earlier, prior to 16.1 cal kyrs BP (13,560±180 14C yrs BP), when land mammals first occupied these caves. The depositional environment of R1 in a core from Dumestre bog suggests that the lake level was in fact 70 m a.s.l. until 12.8 cal kyrs BP (10,695±40 14C yrs BP). However, a 14.2 cal kyrs BP (12,125±85 14C yrs BP) Mylodon pelvis from a nearby site, located at only ~7 m a.s.l., suggests that the lake could have emptied, for at least a brief period, to this low level at this time. This latter datum, combined with the lack of any prominent terraces between the highest ones (170-125 m a.s.l.) and much lower ones (at only 30 m a.s.l. on Peninsula Antonio Varas and 20 m a.s.l. along the coast north and south of Puerto Natales), suggests abrupt changes in the lake level after the R1 eruption. The likely mechanism for producing these changes in Ultima Esperanza was the catastrophic failure and subsequent re-sealing of an ice dam in Paso Kirke, the only below sea-level pathway west to the Pacific north of Fjordo Obstruccion. The final stage of lake drainage, from the lower terrace level (20-30 m a.s.l.) occurred at 10.3 cal kyrs BP.

Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Protozoa at Cueva de Los Riscos, Querétaro, México

3,4 Abstract: Protozoa are important members of ecosystems, but protozoa that inhabit caves are poorly known worldwide. In this work, we present data on the record and distribution of thirteen protozoa species in four underground biotopes (water, soil, bat guano, and moss), at Cueva de Los Riscos. The samples were taken in six different months over more than a year. Protozoa species were ciliates (eight species), flagellates (three species), amoeboid (one species), and heliozoan (one species). Five of these species are reported for the first time inside cave systems anywhere, and an additional three species are new records for Mexican caves. Colpoda was the ciliate genera found in all cave zones sampled, and it inhabited the four biotopes together with Vorticella. The biotopes with the highest specific richness were the moss, sampled near the main cave entrance, and the temporary or permanent water bodies, with ten species each. The greatest number of species was observed in April 2006 (dry season). With the exception of water, all biotopes are studied for the first time.

Refuge From Predation, the Benefit of Living in an Extreme Acidic Environment?

Organisms living in extreme habitats require costly adaptations to cope with these conditions. Among the suggested potential benefits that trade off these costs is refuge from predation. To study these interactions in extreme environments, samples were taken in the cave Cueva de Villa Luz, Tabasco, Mexico, where more than 32 subterranean springs, some H(2)S rich, rise from the floor. Hydrogen sulfide gas plus oxygen is absorbed by freshwater, and oxidation forms concentrated sulfuric acid. Snottites, whitish hollow mucous tubes, hang from the ceiling of the cave. Fluid drops from these snottites were recorded as having pH values of 0-3. We report the discovery of a new species of nematode that thrives in the highly acidic environment of the snottite. Micro CT scan of snottites reveals a complex interaction between the acidic snottite, nematodes, and abundant nematode-eating mites. The nematode adaptation to low pH probably protects them against mite predation, for which nematodes are most likely the most important source of carbon in this sulfur-driven ecosystem.

Synchrotron-based X-ray study of iron oxide transformations in terraces from the Tinto-Odiel river system: Influence on arsenic mobility

Simultaneous analysis of micro-X-ray diffraction (μ-XRD) and micro-X-ray fluorescence (μ-XRF) based on synchrotron light sources, and electron microprobe (EMP) analyses, were performed on iron terrace samples taken from Tinto-Odiel river system from the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IBP, SW Iberian Peninsula). Iron terraces are formed during the oxidation and precipitation of dissolved iron along the riverbeds impacted by acid mine drainage (AMD). This paper includes the study of actively-forming current terraces and fossil terraces isolated from the stream courses due to the river migration over time. The results of the study of current terrace samples from AMD-affected streams of two IPB abandoned mines (Tinto Santa Rosa and Cueva de la Mora) showed that fresh precipitates at the surface are composed primarily of metastable schwertmannite, which is gradually transformed at depth over short-time scales into goethite. Sediments of ancient terraces are composed mainly of goethite, which most likely originated from the re-crystallization of a precursor schwertmannite. However, at century-time scale, goethite partially re-crystallizes to hematite due to diagenetic processes. The transformation rate of goethite into hematite is negatively correlated with grain size and the crystallinity of goethite. Moreover, this transformation is accompanied by an increase in grain size and a decrease in surface area of hematite, and a concomitant decrease in arsenic trapped in the solid. This increase in the arsenic mobility during the diagenetic maturation should be considered in the development of conceptual and analytical models describing long-term fate, transport and bioavailability of arsenic in environmental systems.

VINCULOS DE PARENTESCO POR VIA MATERNA ENTRE LOS ÚLTIMOS DESCENDIENTES DE LA ETNIA KAWÉSQAR Y ALGUNOS ENTIERROS EN LOS CANALES PATAGÓNICOS: EVIDENCIA DESDE EL ESTUDIO DE LINAJES MITOCONDRIALES

This work presents the results obtained from mitochondrial DNA study of Kawesqar skeletal samples from Englefield island, Cueva de la Cruz, Captain Aracena island and Canal Maule-1; and living individuals of Kawesqar group. The results show a great similarity between the mitochondrial DNA sequences of both living individuals and the old samples. The comparison with other published sequences for south American aboriginal populations confirms the results and strongly suggests that there is a maternal kinship between the samples and the current Kawesqar.

A Geochemical and Geophysical Characterization of Sulfide Mine Ponds at the Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain)

This work presents the results of a geochemical and geophysical characterization of the Monte Romero and La Naya mine ponds, belonging to the Cueva de la Mora and Riotinto mine districts, respectively, based on mineralogical, geochemical and geophysical techniques. In order to obtain a representative environmental characterization, two deposits showing different mineralogies, physico-chemical parameters, chemical compositions of tailings and pond conditions were selected. Monte Romero mine tailings showed an upper level mainly composed of silicates and a deeper level mainly composed of sulfides and barite. The toxic metal content was different in both levels but high enough to exceed the regional legal concentration limits for agricultural soils. An electrical resistivity tomography survey revealed a homogeneous upper unit (3 m thickness), which displayed low resistivity values, corresponding to water-saturated silt and clay materials with an abundance of sulfides which was interpreted as the pond infilling. The La Naya mine pond presented a homogeneous mineralogical composition made up of quartz as the main mineral and chlorite-smectite and jarosite as accessory phases. The absence of sulfide phases and the low contents of metal elements are directly related to the reworking processes of the sludge dumped in this pond. The geophysical survey revealed that the pond infilling did not have a constant thickness, but ranged between 15 and 20 m. An inner groundwater flow in the infilling was recognized. The low resistivity values allowed the presence of acid waters and related subsurface flows to be identified in both mine ponds, but no acid water drainage occurred across their vessels. When compared to the Aznalcollar tailings spill, the La Naya pond is large enough to release a similar amount of sludge, but of a very low metal content. The Monte Romero sludge displays a similar, potentially toxic metal content to the Aznalcollar sludge, but its size is significantly smaller.

Microbial Diversity in Paleolithic Caves: A Study Case on the Phototrophic Biofilms of the Cave of Bats (Zuheros, Spain)

The biological colonization of rocks in the Cave of Bats (Cueva de Los Murciélagos, Zuheros, Spain) was studied in order to reveal the diversity of microorganisms involved in the biofilm formation. The culturable, metabolically active fraction of biodeteriogens present on surfaces was investigated focusing on morphological, ultrastructural, and genetic features, and their presence related to the peculiar environmental conditions of the underground site. PCR-ITS analysis and 16S rDNA sequences were used to clusterize and characterize the isolated strains. The presence of bacterial taxa associated to the photosynthetic microflora and fungi within the biofilm contributed to clarify the relationships inside the microbial community and to explain the alteration observed at the different sites. These results will contribute to the application of more successful strategies for the preventive conservation of subterranean archaeological sites.

Symbolic use of marine shells and mineral pigments by Iberian Neandertals

Two sites of the Neandertal-associated Middle Paleolithic of Iberia, dated to as early as approximately 50,000 years ago, yielded perforated and pigment-stained marine shells. At Cueva de los Aviones, three umbo-perforated valves of Acanthocardia and Glycymeris were found alongside lumps of yellow and red colorants, and residues preserved inside a Spondylus shell consist of a red lepidocrocite base mixed with ground, dark red-to-black fragments of hematite and pyrite. A perforated Pecten shell, painted on its external, white side with an orange mix of goethite and hematite, was abandoned after breakage at Cueva Antón, 60 km inland. Comparable early modern human-associated material from Africa and the Near East is widely accepted as evidence for body ornamentation, implying behavioral modernity. The Iberian finds show that European Neandertals were no different from coeval Africans in this regard, countering genetic/cognitive explanations for the emergence of symbolism and strengthening demographic/social ones.