Crusader Period Research Articles

Shifting the Sands – Early Islamic Modification of the Caesarea Sandy Lowlands into Plot-and-Berm Water-Harvesting Agroecosystem

ABSTRACT During the Early Islamic period, several emerging agricultural innovations enabled the cultivation of summer crops in unproductive Mediterranean lands. This necessitated the development of water harvesting methods. This study delves into the creation of the Plot-and-Berm (P&B) agroecosystem along the sandy coast of Caesarea, Israel. From the early tenth century to the mid-twelfth century, coeval to the later part of the Early Islamic period and the beginning of the Crusader period, a 1.5 km2 P&B agroecosystem was constructed and maintained. Remarkably, this system still dominates the landscape. The agroecosystem’s expansion was controlled by regional hydrological, geological, and climatic factors. Anthropogenic sedimentary units include the anthrosol found within the plots and anthrosediment within the berms with densely added refuse. Sedimentological and mineralogical analysis of the anthrosol and anthrosediment unveils the additives of calcitic fine-grains, likely originating from nearby kilns. The arrangement of these fine grains amidst quartz particles fills pore spaces, reducing the hydraulic conductivity of the natural sand. Similar to other sandy agricultural systems, morphological and sedimentological adaptations were employed to sustain a pattern of annual crop yields, by capturing rainfall water for crop cultivation during the rainy season, while high groundwater levels facilitated summer cultivation.

The Fall of Acre and the Salvation of Sodom. The use of peccatis exigentibus in response to the loss of Acre in 1291.

In 1291 the Egyptian Mamluks conquered the city of Acre. The loss of Acre has come to signify the end of the crusades into the eastern Mediterranean from the Latin West. This fact posed a great challenge to medieval audiences and the authors writing for them. The crusades were supposed to be ordained by God. How could their failure be explained in a world in which everything is supposed to happen according to God’s plan? A common discourse used to explain defeat that seemingly went against God’s plan is the so-called peccatis exigentibus. This phrase is frequently used in medieval historiography to posit that bad things happen to God’s favoured people – in the Latin Middle Ages this refers of course to the European Christians – as punishment for their sins. This template has been used and developed throughout the entire crusading period to explain the many defeats the crusading movement had to suffer since the early 12th century. It is again on display in various texts who now aim to explain the conquest of Acre from a Western point of few. This article explores the development of the peccatis exigentibus argument from its biblical roots to its particular place in crusader historiography in the 12th century and subsequently referring to the capture of Acre after 1291. The article then takes a closer look at two texts which in reaction to the conquest of Acre adapt the peccatis exigentibus argument with reference to the same passage from the Old Testament (Genesis 18,17–32) but arrive at very different conclusions.

The Sultan's Pool in Hebron: A Renewed Examination

Near the Cave of the Patriarchs, there is a large pool known as the Sultan's Pool. This pool was an important source of water for the residents of Hebron. A Muslim tradition has attributed the construction of the pool to the Mamluk Sultan Qalāwūn, dating it to the end of the 13th century. However, the chipping on the edge of the stones of the pool's walls, the smoothed lug, a number of decorations found for the first time on the pool's walls, and an overall examination of the pool's components suggests that the pool should be dated to the Crusader period. The pool conveys openness, supporting the idea that Frankish society maintained reciprocal relations with its environment and did not remain closed behind fortress walls. The water reservoir built by Sultan Qalāwūn approximately 130 years later must be sought elsewhere. In the Jewish and Christian tradition, this pool is the biblical "Pool of David." In accordance with the new findings, the article's author does not rule out the possibility that the biblical Pool of David is indeed located in this place; however, only an archaeological excavation in the pool itself may provide an answer as to its origins.

Anu Mänd and Marek Tamm. Making Livonia: Actors and Networks in the Medieval and Early Modern Baltic Sea Region

Anu Mänd and Marek Tamm. <i>Making Livonia: Actors and Networks in the Medieval and Early Modern Baltic Sea Region</i>

Review of Lindsay &amp; Mourad (eds. and trans.), Muslim Sources of the Crusader Period

Review of Lindsay &amp; Mourad (eds. and trans.), Muslim Sources of the Crusader Period

The Antiquities of Jordan in the Reports of Foreign Explorers and Travelers (The Stage Before the Establishment of the Emirate of Jordan in 1921 AD)

This article studies the foreign explorers and travelers who documented the archaeological heritage of Jordan during the 18th and 19th centuries in their travel reports. The article begins with a summary of the historical and social conditions of Jordan at the time, when Jordan was part of the Ottoman state. The article examines the foreign explorers in three sub-periods:&#x0D; &#x0D; From the end of the Crusader period in the aftermath of the Battle of Hittin in 1187 up to Napoleon’s military expedition to Egypt in 1798.&#x0D; From Napoleon’s military expedition in 1798 up to the establishment of the Western learned societies interested in the antiquities of Palestine, starting with the British Palestine Exploration Fund in 1865.&#x0D; From the establishment of the Palestine Exploration Fund in 1865 up to the establishment of the Emirate of Jordan in 1921.&#x0D; &#x0D; The reports of the travelers and explorers concentrated on sites and regions mentioned in the biblical narratives

Holocene sea-level rise and coastal aquifer interactions: Triggering mechanisms for environmental change and impacts on human settlement patterns at Dor, Israel

Future sea-level rise is expected to affect coastal aquifers and environments and have significant impacts on coastal communities. Here, we describe the impact of early to late Holocene sea-level variations on the coastal environment and human settlements of the Carmel Coast, Israel. One of these ancient communities, Tel Dor, was settled initially during the Late Pottery Neolithic (ca. 7 ka) on a wetland surface and then abandoned for ca. 1.5 ka before resettlement occurred on the adjacent aeolianite ridge from the Middle Bronze Age to the Crusader period (4.3–0.9 cal Ka BP). For the first time, high resolution chrono-bio-chemo-stratigraphy of sediment cores collected landward of the current shoreline at Dor are presented capturing a record of poorly sorted sand mixed with marine shells, well sorted aeolian sand and silty clay deposits. The record represents a series of brackish-freshwater wetlands formed in the coastal area of Dor between ca. 15 to 7 ka in response to relative sea-level rise and resulting rise of the coastal aquifers. After 7 ka, due to rising sea level and a transgressing shoreline, sand largely derived from the Nile Delta, reached the coast including the coastal wetland. Landward from the current shoreline, the period between ca. 7 to 4 ka is represented by alternating sand-silt facies consisting of reworked marine shells and brackish-fresh water biota. These lithological cycles reflect fluctuations between coastal and wetland environments governed by the response of the coastal aquifer to sea-level rise. Rapid sea-level rise led to a rise in the groundwater table and inundation of the area around Tel Dor, while periods with slower rates of sea-level rise resulted in coastal sand deposition. The settlement gap at Dor between 7 and 5.6 ka possibly reflects the behavioral response of the coastal settlers to sea-level fluctuation, and sediment depositional variation instigating aquifer inundation coastal marsh development and mobilization of sand bodies. This study provides a record of beach profile build-up along the Mediterranean coast of Israel and serves as an example of how sea-level rise affect unconfined coastal aquifers and the formation of wetlands due to rising water tables in low elevation coasts. Coastal inundation is a long-term risk factor for densely populated low-lying coastal regions that require a proactive approach for solving cascading impacts of sea-level rise.

Rethinking Poetry as (Anti-Crusader) Propaganda: Licentiousness and Cross-Confessional Patronage in the Ḫarīdat al-qaṣr

Abstract It is sometimes assumed that the poetry of the Crusader period was part of a concerted propaganda effort to rouse Muslims to fight and to legitimate Muslim rulers in the eyes of other Muslims by portraying them as ascetic, Sunni revivalists focused on Jihad. Based on samples from the Ḫarīdat al-qaṣr wa-ǧarīdat ahl al-ʿaṣr, a massive 6th/12th-century adab anthology by ʿImād al-Dīn al-Iṣfahānī, this article argues for a different understanding of both the content and the circulation of this period’s poetry. I show that poetry was not addressed to a “public,” but rather was a form of elite communication in which social identity was performed, negotiated, and consolidated. Furthermore, ʿImād al-Dīn’s anthology does not marginalize Shiʿite voices or insist on portraying rulers as ascetics. I trace the origins of these assumptions and show that levity, licentiousness, and Shiʿites were all celebrated in the poetic discourses of the 6th/12th century.

Using archaeological data for the understanding of Late-Holocene Sea of Galilee’s level fluctuations

In the Jordan Valley, reconstructed changes of the Sea of Galilee level have shown sharp fluctuations of the water elevation during the Holocene. In this paper, we provide new data originating from the excavations of Kursi Beach archaeological site located on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee and compare them with other data gathered from the archaeological site of Magdala, located on its western shore. Our data yield to constrain Sea of Galilee level changes between the Iron Age II (10th–9th centuries BCE) and the Crusader period (11th–12th centuries CE), a period of high interest for the archaeological community. We demonstrate that water level was around -212 to -210 m mean sea level (msl) for the Iron Age II period. Lake level rose to -208/-209 m msl during the Late Hellenistic/Early Roman period. Water level remained low (<-213/-214 m msl) from the Byzantine to the Crusader period (from 5th to 12th centuries CE). Our data provide new knowledge for the understanding of variations in the Sea of Galilee level in antiquity. We highlight that water level fluctuations must have been key factors taken into account in the habitation pattern.

Networks of Crusading: An Introductory Overview of Digital Resources for Research into People, Place and Space

Recent years have seen a rise in new and exciting “digital humanities” projects, and the field of Crusades Studies is no exception. Indeed, researchers interested in the “traditional” crusading period (ca.1095 –ca.1291) have sought to reach broader audiences by working collaboratively to create various digital resources for furthering our knowledge and understanding of the crusades and the medieval world. In celebration of the inaugural volume of Medieval People, this article offers an introductory overview of crusades-related digital humanities projects which explore, highlight, and enhance our understanding of crusaders and their networks. It does so by first contextualizing the relevant historical and historiographical background, before discussing in detail four important resources created specifically as digital humanities projects. Two of those spotlighted are more traditionally prosopographical in nature, while the other two were selected to showcase the importance of utilizing a variety of different source types when examining networks of crusading. Overall, this article argues that resources such as these are important tools for research and teaching, and demonstrates the value of developing future crusades-related digital humanities projects.

Multidisciplinary Approaches to Food and Foodways in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean Edited by Sylvie Yona Waksman (Archéologies 4). Lyon: Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée 2020. Pp. 508. €65. ISBN 978-2-35668-070-9 (paper).

<i>Multidisciplinary Approaches to Food and Foodways in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean</i> Edited by Sylvie Yona Waksman (Archéologies 4). Lyon: Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée 2020. Pp. 508. €65. ISBN 978-2-35668-070-9 (paper).

Comparison between the impacts of the irrigation systems of Persian Safavid and Italian Renaissance gardens through a descriptive-historical approach

This article is based on the comparison of the irrigation systems in gardens of two simultaneous periods but formed in two different lands, Italian Renaissance gardens and Persian Safavid gardens. The studies that have been done so far do not explicitly mention the relationship between these two gardens, and this research can be a starting point for referring to historical studies and discovering the possible connections and their effects on each other. The research is qualitative with an interpretive historical approach that seeks to investigate the origins of the irrigation systems of Persian and Italian Villa gardens in the Renaissance period. Methodologically, this study carries out a literature review and case studies by identifying sources in historical bibliographies and archives and by observation in Persian and Italian Renaissance gardens. The result shows some crucial changes occurred to Italian gardens which transformed the form and figure of the gardens. The first and most important one was the creation of running water. According to historical records, two important events are recognised for their impact on the irrigation system: the first was the influence between gardens within and after the Crusader period and the second was Navagaro letters and the impact of Islamic Andalusian gardens on Italian Renaissance gardens.

The ransom of high-ranking captives, tributary relationships and the practice of diplomacy in northern Syria 442-522/1050-1128

AbstractThis article examines how the introduction of western European crusaders and settlers to northern Syria from 490/1097 onwards impacted upon two important mechanisms of regional diplomacy; the ransom of prominent political prisoners and tributary relationships. Discussion begins with a comparison of the capture and ransom of high-ranking captives in northern Syria between 442-522/1050-1128, where it is argued that the establishment of the crusader states led to an increase in both the rate at which prisoners of elite status were ransomed and the financial sums involved in these interactions. This is followed by a reassessment of the various peace treaties, tributary arrangements and condominia or munāṣafa agreements concluded between the rulers of Antioch and Aleppo during the late fifth/eleventh and early sixth/twelfth centuries. Ultimately, this article seeks to place key features of northern Syrian diplomacy from the early crusading period within the context of regional norms in the decades preceding the crusaders’ arrival.

Weapon injuries in the crusader mass graves from a 13th century attack on the port city of Sidon (Lebanon)

Archaeological excavations close to St Louis’ castle in Sidon, Lebanon have revealed two mass grave deposits containing partially articulated and disarticulated human skeletal remains. A minimum of 25 male individuals have been recovered, with no females or young children. Radiocarbon dating of the human remains, a crusader coin, and the design of Frankish belt buckles strongly indicate they belong to a single event in the mid-13th century CE. The skeletal remains demonstrate a high prevalence of unhealed sharp force, penetrating force and blunt force trauma consistent with medieval weaponry. Higher numbers of wounds on the back of individuals than the front suggests some were attacked from behind, possibly as they fled. The concentration of blade wounds to the back of the neck of others would be compatible with execution by decapitation following their capture. Taphonomic changes indicate the skeletal remains were left exposed for some weeks prior to being collected together and re-deposited in the defensive ditch by a fortified gateway within the town wall. Charring on some bones provides evidence of burning of the bodies. The findings imply the systematic clearance of partially decomposed corpses following an attack on the city, where adult and teenage males died as a result of weapon related trauma. The skeletons date from the second half of the Crusader period, when Christian-held Sidon came under direct assault from both the Mamluk Sultanate (1253 CE) and the Ilkhanate Mongols (1260 CE). It is likely that those in the mass graves died during one of these assaults.

Ashkelon 8: The Islamic and Crusader Periods, by Tracy Hoffman.

Ashkelon 8: The Islamic and Crusader Periods, by Tracy Hoffman. Final Reports of the Leon Levy Expedition to Ashkelon 8. Eisenbrauns, 2019. 800 pp., 1110 color and 191 BW illusttrations, index. Hb. $149.95. ISBN-13: 9781575067353.

Islamic Tombstones Reused during the Early Islamic Period from Ramla, Capital of Jund Filastin

In different excavations in Ramla, fragmented Muslim tombstones were uncovered in secondary use, providing a terminus post quem in the mid or late 10th-century AD for their reuse. As showed by the ceramic evidence, the time elapsed between the last interments and the reusing of the tombstones stones as building material was at the most 70 years. Reusing of tombstones is a common archeological occurrence. In most cases, the reutilizing is carried out after a time enough to cut the emotional link between the burial and the builders, or when an ethnical replacement occurred, and new dwellers had no emotional relationship with the previous ones. The phenomenon in Ramla is then an exception. What were the circumstances that led to such an unusual comportment? One possible explanation is the occurrence of a traumatic event, such an earthquake. Following the dates on the stones, it is evident that the event could have occurred only after 961 AD. This could fit the tremor in 1033 AD, two generations after the erection of the tombstones. As for the lifespan of the reconstruction layers, the pottery assemblages related to them, show ceramic types diagnostic to the Fatimid period, not in use in the Crusader period. This, together with the simultaneous abandonment of sites in the city, suggest that the destruction of the reconstruction strata was caused by another catastrophic event, perhaps the 1068 AD tremor. If so, we have a hatch to a well-defined period, limited by two powerful natural catastrophes, that provide termini ante and post quem for the ephemeral reconstruction of the city.

The view from ‘pre-Crusader’ Shawbak: towards a first contextualization through GIS visibility and spatial analyses

The view from ‘pre-Crusader’ Shawbak: towards a first contextualization through GIS visibility and spatial analyses&#x0D; The purpose of this study is to provide a first preliminary interpretation of part of the evidence from Shawbak castle which attests to the presence of a ‘pre-Crusader, probably Byzantine fort. The strategic features of the location of the fort, in particular a great abundance of water resources, made it indeed strategically advantageous during the Crusader period and in the later Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. Stratigraphic evidence from readings of extant buildings and excavations revealed that the first Crusader foundation of the castle was laid out upon the remains of a LateRoman/Byzantine fortification identified in different parts of the castle. The presence of such fortification should probably be considered contextual to the presence of major forts and potential watchtower sites that have been documented by previous surveys in the area, in particular, a system of strategic locations depending on the castellum of Da’janiya betweenthe Desert highway to the east and the Via Nova Traiana to the west. The need to protect the fertile strip of land east of Shawbak and the natural resources of the area might have required a system of visual control attested to in other nearby regions, which could have involved a signaling network in communication with Shawbak. In this paper, a series of visibility analyses are proposed in order to demonstrate that such system could have worked for Byzantine Shawbak.

RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL ROLES OF THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE

This article examines changes to the role of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (CHS) from its construction to the Latin Kingdom and argues that these changes reflect shifts in Christian perception of sacred space. When it was first built, the CHS was only a monument to the profound event of Christ’s resurrection. During the Heraclian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, the very structure of the CHS became sacred and Jerusalem became revered as the city of the Holy Sepulchre. As Muslims conquered Jerusalem in the late 7th century AD, the CHS became increasingly emblematic of Christianity itself. Eventually, the CHS was used as a rallying cry to incite European Christians into a crusade. During the Crusader Period, the CHS was transformed into a symbol of Frankish rule. As pilgrims became more intimate with the CHS, Jerusalem’s sacred geography was expanded from only the CHS to include sites encompassing all aspects of Jesus’s life. With these changes to the roles of the CHS, Christians went from originally distrusting sacred space, to embrace the church as their sole axis mundus (sacred space), to accepting the presence of multiple axis mundi on earth; the CHS was among them.

The Typological Classification of the Old Lebanese Churches in Koura, Batroun and Byblos, from the 8th Century to the 13th Century

The influence of the ecclesiastical architecture was very obvious on the community; it was used for proselytizing purposes and to express the greatness of the church. The church became a link between believers and heaven and a small-scale representation of the universe, where the kingdom of God extends.Forexample, theceilingof churches, especially the domes,symbolizesheaven, which is the throne of God. An indispensable analysis was carried out to understand the typology of churches,based on the plan and spatial composition, therefore to make them easily recognizable. This paper primarily aims to define the typological classification of the historicLebanese churches, to monitor the different characteristicsandto develop a wider understanding of these architectural features. This study relates to ecclesiastical temples from the 8th century to the 13th century in Koura, Batroun and Byblos. Most of the historicchurches and monasteries of Lebanon are located in the north of Lebanon,especially in the areas of Koura, Batroun and Byblos (Jbeil), where the majority of Christian communities still reside until now.Unfortunately, there are no remaining churches before the 8th century, especially after the great earthquake that struck Lebanon in 551 AD. The Crusader period takes place from the end of the eleventh century to the end of the thirteenth century (between 1095 and 1291 AD). In the 13th century, the Fourth Crusade left behind a series of important churches that had a great impact on the architecture of Lebanon. In total, 128 temples were studied in my article;later, I will identifythemand represent theirtypology in six tables.

The Cult in Shiloh during the Roman-Byzantine Period

This article reviews the historical sources and archeological finds concerning the cult in Shiloh in the Roman-Byzantine period. The study examines the transition to the Byzantine period and attempts to follow the conversion to Christianity in the region, with regard to both the holy site and the populace. Furthermore, the study explores the reasons for Shiloh’s sacred status as perceived by the Christians, who brought about the establishment of four churches on the site. An interesting development is the shift from identifying Shiloh’s location at Shiloh with Nabi Samwil in the Crusader period. A main point that emerges is the formation of a holy place. In the Early Roman period, Shiloh appears to have been recognized by the Jews, albeit with no evidence of any religious rituals, while in the Byzantine period, the place was recognized as a sacred place of worship with clear official backing, perhaps versus the Samaritans. Moreover, Shiloh was part of an overall process whereby Christian sites located in Samaria and mentioned mainly in the Old Testament were sanctified in order to influence the Christian image of this area.