Crude Oil Production Research Articles

World crude oil and natural gas liquids production

Oil & Energy Trends: Annual Statistical ReviewVolume 44, Issue 1 p. 23-38 Statistical Tables World crude oil and natural gas liquids production First published: 21 June 2023 https://doi.org/10.1111/oets.12137AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Volume44, Issue1June 2023Pages 23-38 RelatedInformation

Research and Application of Stress Calculation Method for Sucker Rod String

Sucker rod plays a very important role in rod pumping system. If the rod string is not designed properly, it will cause sucker rod failure and affect crude oil production. Allowable stress is the key data in the design of sucker rod string. In order to accurately analyze the allowable stress of sucker rod string, one-dimensional damping wave equation and finite difference algorithm are applied in this paper to accurately analyze the maximum stress, minimum stress and maximum allowable stress of each part of sucker rod string. It is possible to pay close attention to the stress situation of sucker rod and take corresponding measures to extend the service life of sucker rod. The example shows the maximum stress value of the sucker rod is not at or near the top of the cone, for directional wells, but at the maximum inclination angle of the well section. This indicates that the well section with large inclination angle in directional wells is more likely to fail the sucker rod than the top of the cone point. Therefore, we should pay close attention to the sensitive part with large inclination angle and dogleg degree and take corresponding measures to prolong the service life of the sucker rod.

Ketones in Low-Temperature Oxidation Products of Crude Oil

Ketone compounds are oxidation products of crude oil in the in-situ combustion (ISC) process. Revealing the molecular composition of ketones can provide theoretical guidance for understanding the oxidation process of crude oil and valuable clues for studying the combustion state of crude oil in the reservoir. In this study, low-temperature oxidation (LTO) processes were simulated in thermal oxidation experiments to obtain thermally oxidized oil at different temperatures (170 °C, 220 °C, 270 °C, and 320 °C). A combination of chemical derivatization and positive-ion electrospray (ESI) Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) was used to analyze the molecular composition of different kinds of ketones (fatty ketones, naphthenic ketones, and aromatic ketones) in the oxidized oils at different temperatures. The results showed that the concentration of aliphatic ketones and aliphatic cyclic ketones in the product oils decreased with the increase in temperature, while aromatic ketones increased with the increase in temperature. At the same oxidation temperature, the content of ketones follows this order: fatty ketones < cycloalkanes < aromatic ketones. The concentrations of ketones reached their maximum value at 170 °C and decreased at high temperatures due to over-oxidation. It was also found that nitrogen-containing compounds are more easily oxidized to ketone compounds than their hydrocarbon counterparts in the LTO process.

Evaluation of enhanced oil recovery methods for mature continental heavy oil fields in China based on geology, technology and sustainability criteria

Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods in mature oil fields play an irreplaceable role in supporting the long-term and stable production of crude oil. This study establishes a unified and comparable evaluation index system based on geology, technology and sustainability, re-evaluates the existing EOR projects focused on heavy oil extraction by utilizing hybrid AHP-CRITIC-FCE models, and selects the most efficient, economic, and low-carbon footprint EOR technologies to facilitate the development of mature Chinese heavy oil fields. Three main criteria and nineteen subcriteria are considered in the multi-criteria decision-making system. The weights given to criteria are determined by combining the subjective AHP and objective CRITIC methods. The fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method is adopted to prioritize the performance of the EOR process. Empirical analysis is conducted on seven typical heavy oil technologies. The study finds that geological factors account for the largest proportion, and the top five indicators in terms of weight are buried depth, recovery factor, viscosity, operating cost per tonne of oil and reservoir thickness. Three technologies are recommended for potential future green footprint heavy oil EOR methods. This study combines both expert judgment and field data appraisal to help decision makers better plan the future strategic layout of EOR technology.

Effect of silica-based hybrid nano-surfactant on interfacial tension reduction for enhanced oil recovery

Crude oil production has considerably stabilized economic growth on a global scale. Unfortunately, the difficulties of oil production from a reservoir is being a global concern. Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is one of the methods employed recently to increase oil production rate. Nanotechnology has been identified as one of the effective EOR techniques employed using nanoparticles (NPs) as a suitable candidates. Altering a reservoir's petrophysical property such as reducing interfacial tension (IFT) between crude oil and other liquids is an essential factor that plays a significant role in EOR. Considering the significant effects shown by silicon dioxide (SiO2) and iron dioxide (Fe2O3) NPs in EOR, the present study is aimed at investigating the influence of Fe2O3-SiO2 hybrid NPs supported with a surfactant on IFT. The hybrid NPs were produced and separately incorporated with surfactants of anionic sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). The physical and chemical properties of the hybrid NPs were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transforms infrared (FTIR) spectroscopies, respectively. According to the results, the XRD pattern of the Fe2O3-SiO2 hybrid NPs displayed a crystalline structure of Fe2O3 NPs. The FTIR spectra of Fe2O3-SiO2 hybrid NPs showed characteristic absorptions of Fe2O3 and SiO2, indicating successful hybrid formation. The viscosity of Fe2O3-SiO2 nanofluids has increased from 0.95 to 1.85 cP. Upon introducing a hybrid nano-surface of SDBS and PVP, the viscosity values increased to 1.95 cP and 1.90 cP, respectively. Moreover, the Fe2O3-SiO2 hybrid NPs has reduced oil/brine/nanofluids IFT from 17.39 mN m−1 to 5.03 mN m−1. Additional reductions were observed when the surfactants were included. Consequently, IFT (mN m−1) was reduced from 17.39 to 3.08 for Fe2O3-SiO2-PVP and from 17.39 to 2.55 for Fe2O3-SiO2-SDBS. The finding of this study can help for a better understanding of the significant effect of silica-based hybrid nano-surfactant for IFT reduction which in turn could enhance oil production.

The Impact of 3D Prism Cavity for Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Different Nanomaterials.

Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) has been offered as an alternative to declining crude oil production. EOR using nanotechnology is one of the most innovative trends in the petroleum industry. In order to determine the maximum oil recovery, the effect of a 3D rectangular prism shape is numerically investigated in this study. Using ANSYS Fluent software(2022R1), we develop a two-phase mathematical model based on 3D geometry. This research examines the following parameters: flow rate Q = 0.01-0.05 mL/min, volume fractions = 0.01-0.04%, and the effect of nanomaterials on relative permeability. The result of the model is verified with published studies. In this study, the finite volume method is used to simulate the problem, and we run simulations at different flow rates while keeping other variables constant. The findings show that the nanomaterials have an important effect on water and oil permeability, increasing oil mobility and lowering IFT, which increases the recovery process. Additionally, it has been noted that a reduction in the flow rate improves oil recovery. Maximum oil recovery was attained at a 0.05 mL/min flow rate. Based on the findings, it is also demonstrated that SiO2 provides better oil recovery compared to Al2O3. When the volume fraction concentration increases, oil recovery ultimately increases.

Wax appearance temperature study of model waxy oils: influence of nanofluids prepared with iron magnetic nanoparticles

Wax deposition creates many problems in the crude oil production, storage and transportation. The present work is in line with the efforts being made to address wax deposition issues. Nanofluids were prepared with different concentrations of the Fe-magnetic nanoparticles (Fe-MNPs). The same were used to monitor the wax appearance temperature (WAT) of the model waxy oil samples through pour point and differential scanning calorimetry in comparison to the control sample. The effect of increase in the amount of nanofluid and concentration of the Fe-MNPs in the nanofluid had the synergistic effect and the nanofluid prepared with 5% Fe-MNPs exhibited the most positive effect on the reduction of pour point. The results demonstrated that the nanofluid decreased the WAT and increased the flowability and could be used successfully as potential flow improver for real crude oils in industry for controlling the wax deposition issues.

Carbon emissions analysis of producing modified asphalt with natural asphalt

Abstract The modification mechanism of modified asphalt with natural asphalt was analyzed through Fourier transform infrared spectrum. The results show that the modification mechanism of both the natural asphalt and petroleum asphalt is mainly a physical blending process. The polar functional groups contained in natural asphalt make modified asphalt with natural asphalt have characteristic good scaling resistance and water stability. Subsequently, the carbon emissions of each link of asphalt production stage were quantified, and the influence of mining, transportation, and processing on the total carbon emissions were all analyzed by establishing the carbon emission calculation model of asphalt production. The calculation results of GREET model showed that the equivalent carbon dioxide emission (CO2e) of rock asphalt mining was only 9.4% of that of crude oil production. At the same time, the CO2e of modified asphalt with natural asphalt processing was 44.7% lower than that of petroleum asphalt, and the carbon emission of rock asphalt transportation accounted for only 1/3 of that of petroleum asphalt transportation. Furthermore, the increased energy consumption caused by petroleum asphalt transportation and modified asphalt with natural asphalt processing will partially offset the contribution of natural asphalt to reducing carbon emissions. Meanwhile, the CO2e of modified asphalt with natural asphalt was lower than that of petroleum asphalt when the content of natural asphalt exceeded 18%. Thereafter, the analytic hierarchy process calculation results showed that petroleum asphalt processing and transportation had the largest weight of carbon emissions in the production stage of modified asphalt with natural asphalt. Ultimately, it is significant to further reduce carbon emissions by increasing the content of natural asphalt, which will then inevitably lead to the reduction in the production and transportation energy consumption of petroleum asphalt.

E-fuels, technical and economic analysis of the production of synthetic kerosene precursor as sustainable aviation fuel

In the context of European and national energy policies to pursue the energy transition process, the issue of alternative-renewable liquid fuels is clearly addressed, whose purpose is to support the growth of sustainable mobility towards the goal of net zero emissions. On the base of the goals to be achieved in the medium and long term in relation to the theme of decarbonization and the development of new sustainable technologies, the present work deals with the e-fuels, which are produced by hydrogen from water electrolysis driven by renewable energy and CO2 captured from air or industrial sources. In particular, the attention is focused on the production of synthetic kerosene with the purpose to decarbonize the aviation sector, which is one of the most difficult electrifiable sectors due to logistical problems. The main objective of this work is the techno-economic analysis of the production of synthetic kerosene starting from green H2 and CO2 from direct air capture. The study of two main process schemes is carried out for the production of a synthetic crude oil, also called syncrude, rich in the kerosene fraction of interest. In the first scheme, called two-stage or indirect process, the incoming carbon dioxide and hydrogen are transformed through the Reverse-Water-Gas-Shift (RWGS) reaction in a syngas which allows to produce, by means of the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) reaction, the product of interest. The second scheme, referred to as single-stage or direct process, involves the direct formation of syncrude (direct FT-CO2) starting from carbon dioxide and hydrogen. In both cases, kinetic models representative of the considered reactions are selected in order to carry out an accurate process analysis. Through sensitivity analysis and process evaluations, some process optimizations like material recycle and heat integration are performed in order to increasing the efficiency and carry out a cost comparison to evaluate economic feasibility. Regarding the indirect and direct processes, 66.18 bbl/d and 38.46 bbl/d are produced respectively. Considering all the results and scenarios with and without optimizations, the range of the product cost is from 460 to 1435 €/bbl for the indirect process and from 752 to 2364 €/bbl for the direct process. These values strongly depend on the considered prices of power energy and hydrogen used for the present work.

Role of pH and cations on emulsion formation and stability of crude oils

Emulsification plays a crucial role in various areas. However, undesirable emulsions, especially water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions, formed during crude oil production, transportation, processing, and stockpiling, become significant issues in the petroleum industry. Various studies have focused on evaluating the factors affecting emulsion stability and their mechanisms, which hardly explain the relationship with emulsion formation. This study assessed the effects of pH and cations on the transformation of emulsion types and their stability based on the observed emulsion formation process and emulsion particle sizes. It was found that the final W/O emulsions were transformed from water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsions for all brine conditions. At neutral pH, more W/O emulsions were formed through the transformation of W/O/W emulsion, but the high pH broke down most of the W/O/W emulsion into free water and oil. Emulsion particles’ zeta potential or electrokinetics plays a significant role in W/O/W emulsion stability at high pH. The transformation of emulsion types in cation solutions was similar to neutral pH; the amount of W/O emulsion depends on cation species. The W/O/W emulsion stability under different pH in the following order: neutral pH < low pH < high pH, whereas final W/O emulsion stability is as follows: high pH < low pH < neutral pH; MgCl2 < CaCl2 < NaCl. The stability of the emulsion is influenced by the properties of the crude oil, such as viscosity and TAN/TBN ratio, which affect the oil film thickness of the W/O/W. Based on these findings, a stability mechanism is proposed for the emulsion under different pH and cations.

Comparative Study of Heavy Metals and Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Concentrations in Remediated and Non-Remediated Crude Oil Contaminated Soil

Abstract: The discharge of crude oil products to the environment (soil, water and air) has great negative impacts on the ecosystem. Most of these effects are from heavy metals, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) among others. The aim of this research is to assess the effectiveness of the remediation on impacted soil through comparative analysis, and provide a recent data base on the pollution status of the soil. A stratified and random method of sample collection was adopted. From the three locations in Nkelleoken community, the result from the remediated soil showed that the greater amount of almost all the metals are bounded to F4 and F5 which are non-bioavailable to plants. Meanwhile the one from non- remediated soil is the opposite. The total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) results from the non-remediated soil samples were comparatively larger than that of the remediated soil (from 418.30±42.13 to 502.68 mg/kg). Whereas the TPH values from remediated site ranged from 193.65±37.20 to 207.0.4±70.14. Compared to the WHO standard (100-300 mg/kg) the TPH in the remediated soil were below the background limit. Microplasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy and Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Analyzer were used for the quantification of the inorganic and organic pollutants.

Fingerprint characteristics of refined oils and their traceability in the groundwater environment

Chemical fingerprinting is essential for identifying the presence and responding to oil spills that frequently contaminate the groundwater environment of refineries. In this study, crude oil and oil products from the atmospheric and vacuum distillation units of a refinery were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to evaluate their chemical variability before and after refinery. A series of experiments involving evaporation and soil column penetration were conducted to simulate refined oil spilling into groundwater and determine appropriate characteristic ratios (CRs) for principal component analysis (PCA) for oil source identification. The simulated study demonstrated that all products had bell-shaped n-alkane distributions, with dominant peaks that remained unchanged or shifted towards longer chain lengths compared to the source oil. Similarly, naphthalene and dibenzothiophene series remained the main PAH components like the source oil. Ten relatively stable CRs were selected for PCA to identify different oil products through the simulated experiments. The chosen CRs were then utilized to identify the sources for two groundwater oil spills recently occurred, one that occurred in an oil depot area, and another near a continuous catalytic reforming unit in a refinery. This study showed that the components with long-chain n-alkanes (n ≥ C18), pristane, phytane, and phenanthrene and dibenzothiophene series PAHs played an important role in the identification of refined oil products spilling into the groundwater environment. The selected CRs provide an effective tool for rapid and accurate identification of oil spills, especially for newly occurring spills in the groundwater environment, which can aid in developing appropriate response strategies.

Dissipative Particle Dynamics Simulation and Microscopic Experimental Study of Emulsification Performance of Surfactant/Polymer Flooding

Polymers can increase the viscosity of water, reduce the relative permeability of the water phase, and enhance the flowability of the oil phase; surfactants can form molecular films at the oil–water interface boundaries, thereby reducing interfacial tension. Surfactant/polymer (S/P) flooding technology for enhancing oil recovery has become a major way to increase crude oil production. This study used dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) technology to simulate the emulsification process of a four-component composite system consisting of oil, water, sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS), and partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM). By changing the concentration of the S/P system, the effect on emulsification behavior was analyzed. Combined with particle distribution diagrams and interfacial tension parameters, the effect of the emulsification behavior on the performance of the S/P binary system was analyzed. On this basis, the effect of different emulsion performances on the recovery factor was evaluated using micro-experiments. The study found that the S/P system that produced stable emulsification had a lower interfacial tension and relatively good effect on improving the recovery factor. Increasing the concentration of the polymer and surfactant may cause changes in the interfacial film of the emulsion, thereby affecting the ability of the S/P system to reduce interfacial tension and may not improve the oil recovery factor. The research results help to better analyze and screen the S/P system used for oil extraction and improve crude oil recovery.

MODELLING OF THE TOTAL PETROLEUM HYDROCARBON (TPH) DEGRADATION DURING THE BIOREMEDIATION OF CRUDE OIL POLLUTED SOIL USING COW DUNG AND WIRE CROTONS

The contamination of soil due to activities involved in crude oil exploration and production, and oil spillage emanating from pipeline vandalization, sabotage, theft, corrosion of pipeline and the enterprises of artisanal refineries pose health and ecological problems. This is especially as crude oil contains chemical compounds which are grouped into the Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH), and known to be toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic. Bioremediation is currently being explored as a cost effective and environmentally friendly methods of remediating the soil from this contaminant. Thus, the current work is aimed at developing a mathematical model for the bioremediation process. This was carried out while assuming that the process of degradation is a first order reaction, and the principle of the law of conservation of mass was applied. A linear model ( ) was developed relating the instantaneous concentration of TPH, initial concentration of TPH and time duration of the bioremediation. The model fitted well to the experimental data as shown by the result of the statistical analysis where the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed a p-value of 0.004 suggesting that the model is statistically significant. The p-values of the model variables such as time duration of the bioremediation was 0.004, this suggested that the variable is significant. The model can be used as a supporting tool in the management of the biodegradation of TPH to predict the degradation concentration of TPH during the bioremediation process at ambient condition of temperature and pressure using cow dung, wire croton and their combination as a carbon source. KEYWORDS: Bioremediation; cow dung; wire croton; degradation; Mathematical modelling

Case Study: Addressing the Mounting Challenge of Produced-Water Metering Inaccuracy With Nanotechnology

_ As the energy industry strives to reuse produced water and disposal costs of produced water increase, it has elevated the need for more accurate measurement to save money. Measurement of produced water in the US unconventional market is impacted by paraffin deposition on the meters causing inaccurate readings of the volume of produced water. The industry is starting to address this growing issue by applying new technology solutions that enable lasting accuracy in the place of routine maintenance that provides a temporary solution. Most oil and gas producers face paraffin buildup on the inside surface of their electromagnetic flowmeters. These meters are typically located on the produced-water leg, downstream of production and test separators. Paraffin, a waxy substance present in crude oil production, drops out of solution as the fluid cools from the wellhead through the surface equipment. How Paraffin Impacts Metering As the fluid is transported through the pipes, it cools down, causing the paraffin to solidify and deposit on the walls of pipes and flowmeters. Separators that are designed to remove most of the paraffin via heat are still susceptible to the accumulation of small amounts of paraffin that may coat the pipe and measurement devices. Electromagnetic flowmeters are used to measure the volumetric flow rate of conductive fluids in pipelines, such as produced water. They operate by generating a magnetic field across the flow path and measure the voltage induced by the fluid as it flows through the magnetic field. The voltage is proportional to the flow velocity and the magnetic field strength, which is used to calculate the volumetric flow rate of the fluid. Electromagnetic flowmeters contain a minimum of two electrodes, composed of ceramic or metallic materials depending upon the manufacturer. The electrodes read the induced voltage of the produced water flowing through the meter. An insulating liner is placed inside the meter between the conductive fluid and the metal body. This isolates the fluid being measured from the meter body, preventing the fluid from creating an electrical short circuit. Paraffin buildup affects the accuracy and reliability of electromagnetic flowmeters as it nucleates on the electrodes and the liner of the meter. Over time, the paraffin deposition will increase around the electrodes, essentially insulating the electrodes from the fluid. At this point the conductivity of the fluid is artificially reduced, and the flowmeter will under read. If the paraffin coating on the electrodes becomes thick enough, a flowmeter will be completely insulated from the produced water, which the meter interprets as zero flow. As the paraffin coating on the liner increases, the cross-sectional area of the meter is reduced, creating a higher fluid velocity which results in the meter overreading the flowrate (Q = Av where A is the cross-sectional area of flow and v is its average velocity).

Circular bioeconomy in palm oil industry: Current practices and future perspectives

Malaysia is presently ranked as the second top producer of crude palm oil in the world after Indonesia. The industry is serving as the economic backbone of the country. However, massive criticism and challenges are faced by the palm oil industry with the claims that the industry is causing environmental degradation and negative social impacts. Tremendous efforts have been taken to enhance the sustainability of the palm oil industry in environmental, social, and economic aspects including bioenergy, compost, animal feed production, and replanting of palm oil waste residues. Greener approach on circular bioeconomy is, at present, aimed to be transitioned to the palm oil industry. The concept emphasises on resource-efficient and waste minimisation, aiming to attain a lower production cost, to mitigate the negative environmental impacts, and to conserve the resources. This present review discusses the palm oil supply chain from plantation up to milling operations, current practices of palm oil industry in biomass waste reuse and recycling, and by-products productions including bioenergy generation. The potential and future prospects of full range of biowaste management and its refineries are highlighted comprehensively, including waste-to-energy, waste treatment, and waste valorisation for by-products productions. Challenges and potential technological applications are also discussed. To our best knowledge, much is lacking on the circular bioeconomy approach specifically dealt with Malaysian palm oil industry. Therefore, this review serves as a reference for the industrial stakeholders, engineers, environmentalists, researchers, and the government in decision making, policy making, future investment, and innovation advancement.

State of the Art and Prospects for the Development of Methods for Determining the Group Hydrocarbon Composition (SARA Composition) of Crude Oil and Petroleum Products

State of the Art and Prospects for the Development of Methods for Determining the Group Hydrocarbon Composition (SARA Composition) of Crude Oil and Petroleum Products

Physico-Chemical Studies on Crude Oil of Western Onshore

Abstract: Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with non-metallic elements such as sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, and other elements. Hydrocarbons are chemicals that are mostly composed of the elements carbon and hydrogen. Crude oil comprises a variety of hydrocarbon molecules that fall into three categories: alkane, cycloalkane, and aromatic. Crude oil is distinguished by a number of chemical and physical features that play an essential role in the oil industry. These qualities are critical in making decisions in the exploration and production of crude oil. Characteristics like density, specific gravity, API gravity, water content, and sulphur content, to name a few, contribute value to the price of crude before it is transported to markets and refineries, so controlling these parameters significantly saves damage to infrastructure like pipelines and refineries. As a result, the study of physical and chemical properties becomes crucial for the petroleum industry. The current work deals with the investigation of physico-chemical characteristics of crude oil of Western onshore.

Comparative Study of Hydrogen Thermal Decompostion Characteristics According to Space Velocity Using Combustible Waste Plastics

This Study using combustibe waste plastic compared the pyrolysis Characteristics according to GHSV and the performance of various catalysts for hydrogen production reactor. pyrolysis synthetic oil and synthetic gas (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;/CO) of waste plastic are produced using a gasification reactor in a lab scale. HDPE, PP, PS, among the main components of waste plastic were selected as a sample. It was possible to produce high value added hydrogen by producing hydrogen and crude oil through the catalytic reforming reaction that is improved the pyrolysis in vapor. The production of crude oil without catalysts was high at 70.2 wt% and among oil with more 18 hydrocarbons wax’s hydrocarbons accounted for 70.47%. On the other hand in the case of producing crude oil using a catalyst the amount decreased, but the hydrocarbon percentage of increased C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;~C&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt;. As a result of the pyrolysis of each of the catalysts determined according to the GHSV. 10,000 hr-1, 8,000 hr-1, 5,000 hr-1, amount of synthetic oil produced in the case of the GHSV was higher than the other two conditions, but the hydrocarbon of C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;~C&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt; was 30~40%. Based on this it was confirmed that the caloric value of the pyrosis crude oil was up to 11.583 kcal/kg and the pyrolysis oil yield was 58%. In a lab-scale in ternal circulating pyolysis gasification reactor waste plastic is pyrolyzed into catalysts, heat and material resins pyrolyzed into catalysts, heat and material resins at isothermal temperature to produce plastic products such as PS, PE, PP and phthalate.

Revisiting the resource curse in Nigeria: the case of Niger delta

Natural resources endowment is a blessing to the endowed states due to their catalytic development-driving potential. The exploitation of the endowment should result in rapid socio-economic development. However, for most developing states, the blessing of these natural resources strangely tends to turn disadvantageous; a phenomenon that has been distinctly identified in the literature as ‘the resource curse. This paper examines that phenomenon, using Nigeria Niger Delta as a case study given the serious environmental, political and socio-economic challenges occasioned by the country’s exploitation of its oil and gas endowment. The paper further explores efforts made to reverse the trend of the phenomenon in Nigeria and also what could be the most effective means of containing the said problems in light of their implications for the future of the country and its people. The study recommended that that there is a well-planned and coordinated program for socio-infrastructural development across the region. Government should provide the grounds for both the oil companies and the host oil communities to cooperate with each other and ensure compliance of the MOUs signed by the oil companies and the host communities. The amnesty program initiated by late President Umaru Musa Yar’Adua should be effectively implemented to avoid the resurgence of militancy and other forms of conflict. Government and the oil companies should guarantee the indigenes that they are a part of the business of crude oil exploration and production in the communities, this will help reduce or possibly stop the issue of regular vandalization of oil pipelines and other facilities of the oil exploration companies. There should be equitable sharing of revenue from the sales of crude oil, particularly by the Federal Government.