As a highly persuasive form of evidence in criminal proceedings, the reliability of eyewitness identification is inherently linked to the impartiality of judicial adjudication. Notably, erroneous eyewitness identification stands as the primary cause of wrongful convictions globally, underscoring the urgency of addressing its fallibility. This study aims to systematically dissect the cognitive mechanisms underlying the unreliability of eyewitness identification, clarify the key variables modulating identification accuracy, and explore scientifically validated regulatory strategies. Guided by Wells’ "estimator variables-system variables" framework, we first elucidate the intrinsic cognitive underpinnings, encompassing memory constructive bias and post-event information interference. Drawing on a synthesis of domestic and international empirical findings, we then conduct a systematic analysis of the differential effects of estimator variables and system variables on identification accuracy. Furthermore, we propose core judicial regulatory pathways, including the establishment of a double-blind administration rule and the standardization of lineup procedures, to mitigate identification errors. Finally, we advocate that future research should deepen the exploration of multi-variable interactive effects and neural mechanisms, striving to construct more comprehensive influencing factor models and predictive tools. Ultimately, this examination underscores that effective crisis negotiation is a sophisticated interdisciplinary endeavor, integrating principles from psychology, linguistics, and conflict resolution to navigate asymmetric, high-pressure scenarios towards peaceful outcomes.

Crisis negotiation denotes a structured and specialized process of communication and decision-making employed to resolve high-stakes incidents such as hostage-taking and extortion. Its primary objective is to achieve a peaceful resolution while prioritizing the preservation of life. The modern institutionalization of this practice stems from the 1972 Munich tragedy, which exposed the catastrophic costs of failed armed interventions and compelled law enforcement agencies worldwide to formally adopt systematic negotiation methodologies as a primary response option. This study conducts a comprehensive inquiry into the fundamental rationale for crisis negotiation and the multifaceted determinants of its effectiveness. It posits that the adoption of negotiation is not merely tactical but an inevitable evolution in public safety strategy. This is grounded in the recognition that most crises are not zero-sum games and that dialogue offers distinct advantages over immediate force. These advantages include de-escalating volatile situations, gathering vital intelligence, buying time for strategic preparation, and facilitating perpetrator compliance without violence. The analysis further examines the core factors determining negotiation outcomes. It specifically highlights the pivotal role of strategic communication techniques, emphasizing how linguistic style matching, psychological accommodation, and cultural sensitivity are crucial for building rapport and influencing behavior. Concurrently, the paper investigates critical human factors, particularly the complex psychological dynamics affecting hostages—such as Stockholm Syndrome and London Syndrome. It explores how understanding and managing these phenomena is essential for ensuring hostage safety and guiding the negotiation process. Ultimately, this examination underscores that effective crisis negotiation is a sophisticated interdisciplinary endeavor, integrating principles from psychology, linguistics, and conflict resolution to navigate asymmetric, high-pressure scenarios towards peaceful outcomes.

The Arctic is undergoing an unprecedented transformation in recorded history as a result, of anthropogenic climate change. This reality surprisingly compares in some respects with the speculative geoengineering ambitions imagined by Jules Verne in his 1889 novel, The Purchase of the North Pole. Verne’s science fictional premise was a deliberate effort to melt the frozen ice-covered Arctic region for industrial profit. This premise mirrors today’s accelerated rate of the melting of Arctic sea ice, which is primarily linked to a worldwide dependence on fossil fuel in their drive for economic development of their own country. Here, we briefly track the historical trajectory of the temperature of the atmosphere, the political inertia surrounding UNFCCC’s COP (Conference of Parties) attempts to limit if not reduce greenhouse gas emissions from various sources, and the foreseeable geopolitical constraints on international climate crisis negotiations to curb global warming. We also note the implications of various proposed geoengineering schemes for altering the existing global climate regime to counteract the adverse consequences of a foreseeable runaway global warming. It is not unreasonable to view the Arctic region’s loss of sea ice as a proverbial «canary in the coal mine», which means providing a stark warning of an impending disaster and in this case of global proportion. Although past generations have ignored earlier science-based signs of a possible continued atmospheric warming, societies today face an already critically narrowed window of opportunity to act to prevent its potentially irreversible adverse consequences.

Identifying, communicating, and de-escalating risk in high-stakes settings: How conversation analysis research can underpin communication training.

The rapid proliferation of ransomware attacks has created severe capacity constraints for crisis negotiation specialists, particularly as attacks on critical infrastructure systems expose the limitations of current response capabilities. Organizations face an increasingly untenable situation: multiple simultaneous incidents requiring specialized negotiation expertise that remains in critically short supply. This study examines whether artificial intelligence can augment human negotiation capacity while maintaining the nuanced judgment essential in high-stakes digital extortion scenarios. Through comparative case analysis of four major ransomware incidents occurring between 2021 and 2024, supplemented by expert interviews with seasoned crisis negotiators and discrete event simulation modeling, we assessed the viability of AI-supported negotiation frameworks. Our analysis reveals that automated systems demonstrate considerable promise for managing initial victim communications and intelligence synthesis, potentially enabling human negotiators to focus resources on the most complex strategic decisions. However, critical vulnerabilities emerge in scenarios involving healthcare systems or national infrastructure, where negotiation failures carry life-threatening consequences. The evidence supports a hybrid approach that leverages AI capabilities for routine tasks while preserving human authority over all strategic and ethical determinations. We present an interdisciplinary framework synthesizing crisis psychology principles, cybersecurity incident response protocols, and AI ethics considerations, all anchored in empirical data from actual ransomware events rather than theoretical scenarios. This research contributes practical implementation guidelines for AI deployment in adversarial negotiation contexts, addressing significant gaps in existing literature. Our policy recommendations emphasize establishing clear oversight mechanisms, ethical boundaries, and international coordination frameworks to ensure responsible AI integration in crisis response operations, providing actionable guidance for cybersecurity practitioners and institutional decision-makers.

Abstract This exploratory paper examines how the practical application of narrative medicine (NM) has the capability to support police hostage/crisis negotiators. Narrative medicine ensures that the humanity and dignity of both medical professional and patients are constantly addressed while the patient is being treated for their illness. While the medical professional purposefully involves the patient’s story as a crucial part of the process, it is suggested that negotiators can adapt a similar approach when assisting a person in crisis. This paper explores the foundation of NM and important terms through the lens of its application and potential contribution in police-related crisis work. In conclusion, synthesizing narrative practices and skills with police crisis incidents can benefit negotiators professionally while also contributing to enhancing their personal resilience and overall wellbeing.

Operational psychologists provide a variety of psychological services in support of national security, national defense, and public safety. Their work may include the assessment of personnel for high-risk positions, consultation to investigations and crisis negotiations, support to military or intelligence training and operations, or other types of psychological and behavioral assessments. The practice of operational psychology differs in important ways from other practice areas and has developed significantly over the past 20 years. Given developments in the field, debate about the proper roles of psychologists in national security settings, and psychologists' ongoing need for guidance, these Professional Practice Guidelines for Operational Psychology are provided to benefit operational psychologists, the recipients of their services, and other affected parties. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Abstract In this study, the application of Large Language Models (LLMs) in simulation-based training of law enforcement officers is being assessed. Adaptability, real-time response capabilities and dynamic and personalised learning experiences, which closely simulate real-life policing scenarios, are the hallmarks of LLMs. LLMs adjust scenarios according to trainee input to enhance learning engagement, facilitate better decision-making, and improve skill retention. Finally, the study shows how LLMs contribute to realism in training, especially in high-stakes situations such as crisis negotiation and suspect interrogation. That being said, bias and ethical concerns are currently being investigated in relation to the application of large language models (LLMs). In this study, LLM-driven simulations are assessed using a mixed-methods approach that blends qualitative feedback with quantitative data. Results suggest that LLMs significantly enhance trainee preparedness for unpredictable real-world encounters and thus can present a scalable and low-cost training solution for law enforcement training.

Predictors of Successful Resolutions and Avoidance of Harms in Crisis Negotiations: An Analysis of the FBI’s HOBAS Database from 1982 to 2023

위기협상 개념의 정립과 경찰실무에 대한 도입 논의

Since the 2010s, negotiation practices within the Korean Police Force have seen substantial advancements. Negotiation teams managed by each provincial police department and those at the national investigation headquarters handle initial responses at scenes. The increased visibility and recognized importance of police negotiation teams have led to more frequent dispatches of negotiation officers and significant successes, such as in the hostage situations in Hapcheon, South Gyeongsang Province, and a bakery in Gangnam District, Seoul. However, a persistent preference for tactical responses over trust in crisis negotiation often dominates on the ground, indicating the need for further improvements. The National Police Agency conducts in-depth training sessions biannually to enhance the capabilities of professional negotiators, while provincial police departments focus on basic negotiation training through local educational institutions. Nonetheless, there is a significant shortfall in the training provided to commanders overseeing these operations, resulting in inadequate communication. The reduction of training programs at police educational institutions since 2024 has raised concerns. This study aims to analyze opinions from scholars and practitioners who were directly involved in or active in crisis negotiations, such as the 2017 Hapcheon hostage incident, to identify the challenges encountered in the field and suggest potential improvements.

Negotiations by police agencies are activities to resolve situations through dialogue and compromise rather than physical forces such as forced suppression in various crisis situations. Police negotiations have been developed in the United States since the 1970s as the need for measures to minimize sacrifices in crisis situations was raised after unsuccessful outcomes following suppression-centered operations in the process of resolving terrorism and various hostage situations. The Republic of Korea operated a negotiation team as one of the dedicated organizations for responding to the 1988 Seoul Olympics terrorist threats, and the negotiation team was cultivated in the National Police Agency. The Korean police negotiation team has been expanded and evolved from anti-terrorism negotiations to crisis negotiations in response to changing domestic security environment and is actively operating in crisis situations such as various crimes and suicide. Negotiations by the military police has been mainly focused on countering terrorism and their approaches and tactics in various military crisis situations have not been discussed so far. This study was conducted for the purpose of diagnosing problems of the military police negotiation team by analyzing its operation status and deriving a development plan. In particular, by clarifying the types of military police negotiations, it was intended to establish a foundation for differentiating negotiation techniques that are applicable not only in response to terrorism but also in various military-related crisis situations.

Crisis negotiation teams have previously been described as “gatekeepers” to suicidal individuals, with research showing that these are amongst the most common calls negotiators attend to. Despite this, the situational features of these calls and the communicative dynamics that may lead to the safe resolution of suicidal crises, remain poorly understood. Using a mixed method approach, situational characteristics across four suicidal incident types were examined, and “hooks” and “triggers” that were common in each incident type were identified. The results revealed some consistencies across incident types regarding incident location, and the mental health and substance use histories of subjects. Inconsistencies were observed for communication method used, weapons involved, and resolution details. Numerous hooks and triggers were identified for each incident type. The findings increase our understanding of suicidal crises and have implications for negotiator training (e.g., the features of actual suicidal incidents can inform the content of scenario-based training).

Background: Previous research reveals that standard crisis negotiation techniques are useful in assisting suicidal persons, but how routine interactional procedures impact their implementation has not yet been sufficiently examined. Aim: This paper investigates how routine interactional procedures impact the effectiveness of crisis negotiation techniques in an emergency services call involving a suicide announcement. Methods: A publicly released emergency service call was transcribed and analyzed using the qualitative technique of conversation analysis. Results: The call taker used crisis negotiation techniques such as maximizing autonomy, displaying active listening, and distracting the caller to keep them on the phone. These techniques were implemented successfully through routine interactional procedures such as topic shifts, requests, and listener responses. Interrupting or overlapping the caller's speech or replacing requests with demands were less effective. Discussion: Instruction in the routine procedures of interaction may be as important as instruction in standard crisis negotiation techniques when training call takers to handle suicide announcement calls. Conclusions: Qualitative analysis of suicide announcement calls can be an effective means of learning how crisis negotiation techniques are used in practice and how emergency call takers can help prevent suicide by keeping callers on the phone and persuading them to abandon their suicidal plans.

States often intentionally stall crisis negotiations, hoping to build arms or attract allies to achieve a more favorable bargaining position. Why do their adversaries tolerate delay in some cases, but attack upon delay in others? I argue that this is because states cannot perfectly distinguish between intentional and unavoidable delays. This presents a strategic tension: a state prefers to attack preventively if the delay is intentional, but prefers to avoid costly war otherwise. To study this tension, I build a formal model of crisis bargaining with delay tactics, showing that rising states may mask bargaining delays behind natural exogenous delays to complete a peaceful power shift. I find that uncertainty over the source of delay may decrease the risk of war under some conditions, and increase the risk of war under others. I discuss the implications of my theoretical model for the causes of war and power shifts in historical cases.

Aim: Crisis negotiation is a very effective police tool for the successful and peaceful resolution of various types of crisis interventions, with different types of interventions being the focus of this review. Materials and Methods: One of the most effective communication skills negotiators use is active listening. Active listening involves focusing attention on what the person is saying without judging, while non-verbally and verbally letting the person know that he is being listened to. In the negotiation context, it calms the perpetrator, encourages him to talk, enables rapport building between the negotiator and the perpetrator, and encourages a change in the perpetrator’s behaviour. Results: Techniques that are most effective in crisis negotiation are paraphrasing, mirroring, “I” messages, minimal encouragements, pause, open-ended questions and emotion labelling. The paper also describes important factors for the effective use of active listening in crisis negotiation. Conclusion: Important factors for the effective use of active listening in crisis negotiation are non-judgmental acceptance, rapport building, maintaining dignity, authenticity, and empathy.

Suicidalno ponašanje vodeći je uzrok ozljeđivanja i smrtnosti svih dobnih skupina u svijetu. Policijski službenici često se susreću s osobama koje prijete oduzimanjem vlastitog života. Službenici koji su educirani, odnosno specijalizirani za takva postupanja i čije se intervencije u najvećem postotku odnose upravo na postupanja prema potencijalnim počiniteljima samoubojstva jesu policijski pregovarači. Krizno pregovaranje jedan je od najučinkovitijih policijskih alata koji se i u praksi i prema istraživanjima kontinuirano i dosljedno pokazuje kao vrlo uspješan način rješavanja različitih kriznih intervencija – uključujući i pokušaje samoubojstva. Cilj ovog rada jest predstavljanje djelovanja policijskih pregovarača u situacijama pokušaja samoubojstava. U radu su prikazane osnovne tehnike i strategija postupanja prema potencijalnim počiniteljima samoubojstva, kao i karakteristike pregovarača te upozoravajući znakovi u ponašanju počinitelja. Opisana su i dva primjera iz prakse te prijedlozi unapređenja policijskog pregovaranja u Hrvatskoj.

Professional negotiators always use three core strategies1: a team strategy (the boss does not negotiate); a behavioural strategy, which is based on the Behavior Change Stairway Model (BCSM); both strategies are developed for crisis negotiations and should also be used in Business-to-Business (B2B) negotiations. Furthermore, professional negotiators use a process strategy which is based on the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) and conflict research.

Critical Incident Management: Strengthening the Relationship Between Crisis Negotiations and Tactical Teams

Terrorism continues to occur in all parts of the world, unpredictable, and unpredictable. In addition, crimes against humanity continue, with terrorists planning negotiations for their own benefit and taking innocent people hostage in order to gain an advantage in those negotiations. On the other hand, in the event of such a terrorist attack, if the mission execution system and experts for crisis negotiations are not trained and prepared, the damage will not only end with our terrorism, but will also read the lives of people. However, in the case of terrorism that occurs in the military, the level of terrorism that occurs in the military causes more damage than that of the civilian sector, so it is necessary to prepare in advance for military crisis negotiations, but it has not developed beyond the simple theoretical part. In addition, since the methods of terrorism are constantly changing and are carried out in various ways, it is necessary to examine the specifics of crisis negotiation methods for the practical performance of missions, such as suppressing terrorism and preventing human casualties, through crisis negotiations in such a terrorist situation.