Criminal Justice System Costs Research Articles

Responding to the US opioid crisis: leveraging analytics to support decision making.

The US is experiencing a severe opioid epidemic with more than 80,000 opioid overdose deaths occurring in 2022. Beyond the tragic loss of life, opioid use disorder (OUD) has emerged as a major contributor to morbidity, lost productivity, mounting criminal justice system costs, and significant social disruption. This Current Opinion article highlights opportunities for analytics in supporting policy making for effective response to this crisis. We describe modeling opportunities in the following areas: understanding the opioid epidemic (e.g., the prevalence and incidence of OUD in different geographic regions, demographics of individuals with OUD, rates of overdose and overdose death, patterns of drug use and associated disease outbreaks, and access to and use of treatment for OUD); assessing policies for preventing and treating OUD, including mitigation of social conditions that increase the risk of OUD; and evaluating potential regulatory and criminal justice system reforms.

The cost of firearm violent crime in British Columbia, Canada.

This study aimed to quantify the total cost of violent firearm-related offenses in British Columbia in 2016 Canadian dollars over a five-year period, 2012 to 2016. The purposes of this study were to estimate the direct costs to the health care system and indirect costs to society for violent firearm injuries and deaths; and to estimate criminal justice system costs pertaining to firearm incidents. Human and economic costs to the health care system and productivity losses were calculated using health administrative datasets such as B.C. Vital Statistics and Discharge Abstract Database. Criminal justice system costs pertaining to firearm incidents were estimated by applying weighted average costs to aggregate expenditures using methodology consistent with that used by Statistics Canada. There was a total of 108 deaths and 245 hospitalizations resulting from violent firearm injuries. The total estimated cost of all violent firearm crime averaged $294,378,985 per year; human costs averaged $188,416,841 per year, where health care costs averaged $3,910,317 per year, productivity losses from workforce and household averaged $17,299,054 and $4,559,470 per year, respectively, and loss of life averaged $162,648,000; and $105,021,145 in criminal justice system costs, and $941,000 in programming costs. This study clearly demonstrates the significant cost of violent firearm injury in British Columbia and the impacts on the health care system, criminal justice system, and to society at large, particularly within the criminal justice system where the costs were significantly higher than health care.

Cost savings of a primary care program for individuals recently released from prison: a propensity-matched study

BackgroundCriminal justice system costs in the United States have exponentially increased over the last decades, and providing health care to individuals released from incarceration is costly. To better understand how to manage costs to state budgets for those who have been incarcerated, we aimed to assess state-level costs of an enhanced primary care program, Transitions Clinic Network (TCN), for chronically-ill and older individuals recently released from prison.MethodsWe linked administrative data from Connecticut Department of Correction, Medicaid, and Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services to identify a propensity matched comparison group and estimate costs of a primary care program serving chronically-ill and older individuals released from incarceration between 2013 and 2016. We matched 94 people released from incarceration who received care at a TCN program to 94 people released from incarceration who did not receive care at TCN program on numerous characteristics. People eligible for TCN program participation were released from incarceration within the prior 6 months and had a chronic health condition or were over the age of 50. We estimated 1) costs associated with the TCN program and 2) costs accrued by Medicaid and the criminal justice system. We evaluated associations between program participation and Medicaid and criminal justice system costs over a 12-month period using bivariate analyses with nonparametric bootstrapping method.ResultsThe 12-month TCN program operating cost was estimated at $54,394 ($146 per participant per month). Average monthly Medicaid costs per participant were not statistically different between the TCN ($1737 ± $3449) and comparison ($1356 ± $2530) groups. Average monthly criminal justice system costs per participant were significantly lower among TCN group ($733 ± $1130) compared with the matched group ($1276 ± $1738, p < 0.05). We estimate every dollar invested in the TCN program yielded a 12-month return of $2.55 to the state.ConclusionsMedicaid investments in an enhanced primary care program for individuals returning from incarceration are cost neutral and positively impact state budgets by reducing criminal justice system costs.

Commentary on Victor et al. : Preventing overdose deaths following release from incarceration-context is crucial.

Overdose is a common, yet preventable, cause of deathfollowing release from incarceration. Investing inalternatives to incarceration and providing continuous,coordinated care to those who are incarcerated—particularly those with co-occurring mental illness andsubstance use disorders—will not only reduce overdosedeaths, but also improve public health and improve publicsafety and reduce health-care and criminal justice systemcosts.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of alternative naloxone distribution strategies: First responder and lay distribution in the United States

BackgroundThe U.S. is facing an unprecedented number of opioid-related overdose deaths, and an array of other countries have experienced increases in opioid-related fatalities. In the U.S., naloxone is increasingly distributed to first responders to improve early administration to overdose victims, but its cost-effectiveness has not been studied. Lay distribution, in contrast, has been found to be cost-effective, but rising naloxone prices and increased mortality due to synthetic opioids may reduce cost-effectiveness. We evaluate the cost-effectiveness of increased naloxone distribution to (a) people likely to witness or experience overdose (“laypeople”); (b) police and firefighters; (c) emergency medical services (EMS) personnel; and (d) combinations of these groups. MethodsWe use a decision-analytic model to analyze the cost-effectiveness of eight naloxone distribution strategies. We use a lifetime horizon and conduct both a societal analysis (accounting for productivity and criminal justice system costs) and a health sector analysis. We calculate: the ranking of strategies by net monetary benefit; incremental cost-effectiveness ratios; and number of fatal overdoses. ResultsHigh distribution to all three groups maximized net monetary benefit and minimized fatal overdoses; it averted 21% of overdose deaths compared to minimum distribution. High distribution to laypeople and one of the other groups comprised the second and third best strategies. The majority of health gains resulted from increased lay distribution. In the societal analysis, every strategy was cost-saving compared to its next-best alternative; cost savings were greatest in the maximum distribution strategy. In the health sector analysis, all undominated strategies were cost-effective. Results were highly robust to deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analysis. ConclusionsIncreasing naloxone distribution to laypeople and first responder groups would maximize health gains and be cost-effective. If feasible, communities should distribute naloxone to all groups; otherwise, distribution to laypeople and one of the first responder groups should be emphasized.

The Opioid Epidemic in West Virginia.

The rate of overdose related to the use of licit and illicit opioids has drastically increased over the last decade in the United States. The epicenter has been West Virginia with the highest rates of overdoses accounting for 41.5 deaths per 100 000 people among the 33 091 deaths in 2015. The purpose of this research was to examine and analyze the cause of the opioid epidemic and subsequent responses to it in the state of West Virginia. This study conducted a literature review using 37 references that were published between the years 2009 and 2018, complemented with a semistructured interview. The number of people injecting drugs has increased from 36% in 2005 to 54% in 2015. The total US cost of prescription opioid abuse in 2011 has been estimated at $25 billion, and criminal justice system costs to $5.1 billion. The reasons for this opioid epidemic incidence in West Virginia have been a combination of sociocultural factors, a depressed economy, lack of education, and a high rate of prescribing and dispensing of prescription opioids.

The effects of health care-based violence intervention programs on injury recidivism and costs: A systematic review.

Youth violence affects thousands annually, with homicide being the third leading cause of death for those aged 10 to 24 years. This systematic review aims to evaluate the published evidence for the effects of health care-based violence intervention programs (VIPs), which focus on reducing recurrent presentations for injury due to youth violence ("recidivism"). Health literature databases were searched. Studies were retained if peer reviewed and if programs were health care based, focused on intentional injury, addressed secondary or tertiary prevention (i.e., preventing recidivism and reducing complications), included participants aged 14 to 25 years, had greater than 1-month follow-up, and evaluated outcomes. Studies of child and sexual abuse and workplace, intimate partner, and self-inflicted violence were excluded. Extracted data subject to qualitative analysis included enrollment and retention, duration of follow-up, services provided, statistical analysis, and primary and intermediate outcomes. Of the 2,144 citations identified, 22 studies were included in the final sample. Twelve studies were randomized controlled trials representing eight VIPs. Injury recidivism was assessed in six (75%) of eight programs with a significant reduction in one (17%) of six programs. Of the randomized controlled trials showing no difference in recidivism, all were either underpowered or did not include a power analysis. Two observational studies also showed significant reduction in recidivism. Significant intermediate outcomes included increased service use, attitude change, and decreases in violence-related behavior. Reductions in injury recidivism led to reductions in health care and criminal justice system costs. Three studies showing reduced injury recidivism and several studies showing positive intermediate outcomes identify VIPs as a promising practice. Many studies were limited by poor methodological quality, including high losses to follow-up. Systematic review, level III.

PMH43 - Health resource and Criminal Justice system costs for Young Clinical Trial Patients with Schizophrenia and prior Incareration by treatment failure status

PMH43 - Health resource and Criminal Justice system costs for Young Clinical Trial Patients with Schizophrenia and prior Incareration by treatment failure status

Cost-benefit analysis of a preventive intervention for divorced families: reduction in mental health and justice system service use costs 15 years later.

This cost-benefit analysis compared the costs of implementing the New Beginnings Program (NBP), a preventive intervention for divorced families to monetary benefits saved in mental healthcare service use and criminal justice system costs. NBP was delivered when the offspring were 9-12 years old. Benefits were assessed 15 years later when the offspring were young adults (ages 24-27). This study estimated the costs of delivering two versions of NBP, a single-component parenting-after-divorce program (Mother Program, MP) and a two-component parenting-after-divorce and child-coping program (Mother-Plus-Child Program, MPCP), to costs of a literature control (LC). Long-term monetary benefits were determined from actual expenditures from past-year mental healthcare service use for mothers and their young adult (YA) offspring and criminal justice system involvement for YAs. Data were gathered from 202 YAs and 194 mothers (75.4 % of families randomly assigned to condition). The benefits, as assessed in the 15th year after program completion, were $1630/family (discounted benefits $1077/family). These 1-year benefits, based on conservative assumptions, more than paid for the cost of MP and covered the majority of the cost of MPCP. Because the effects of MP versus MPCP on mental health and substance use problems have not been significantly different at short-term or long-term follow-up assessments, program managers would likely choose the lower-cost option. Given that this evaluation only calculated economic benefit at year 15 and not the previous 14 (nor future years), these findings suggest that, from a societal perspective, NBP more than pays for itself in future benefits.

PMH55 - Baseline health resource and criminal justice system costs for clinical trial patients with schizophrenia and prior incareration

To describe estimated health resource (HR) and criminal justice (CJ) system costs for patients with schizophrenia recently released from incarceration that are participating in a clinical trial. Interim baseline HR and CJ events collected via a resource use questionnaire from a clinical study of individuals with schizophrenia recently released from incarceration were analyzed. HR and CJ utilization were evaluated for the most recent CJ event prior to study enrollment, the time between this CJ event and enrollment, and the year prior to this CJ event (pre-period). HR and CJ cost estimates were obtained from administrative claims and published literature then applied to the utilization data pro-rated to 365 days. Costs were summarized descriptively using a state government payer perspective and presented in 2011 US dollars. Mean total cost (n=422) in the year prior to enrollment was $28,631(SD $20,680; Median $23,445). Mean cost of the qualifying CJ event was $14,824 (SD $14,846; Median $10,819). The top 3 most frequent CJ qualifying events were parole/probation violation, drug charges, and disorderly conduct/vagrancy/public intoxication. Average duration of observation for time periods before and after the qualifying CJ event was 243 days (SD 103) and 66 days (SD 72), respectively. Estimated mean HR cost in the period prior to CJ qualifying event (pre-period) was $2,485 (SD $4,959; Median $929), and mean CJ cost was $6,668 (SD $12,401; Median $0). Among those with at least one CJ event in the pre-period (n=183), average CJ cost was $15,376 (SD $14,870; Median $11,095). Mean HR cost between the CJ event and enrollment was $2,030 (SD $3,452; Median $846). From a state government perspective, mental health related HR and CJ contacts are costly and are potentially avoidable. These data can be used to model HR and CJ costs in a population with schizophrenia.

The monetary cost of offender trajectories: Findings from Queensland (Australia)

This study assessed the longitudinal costs of offender trajectories in Queensland (Australia) to provide policymakers with evidence that could be used to promote the use of crime prevention programs. Few studies have assessed these costs and minimal research has been conducted outside the United States. The study addressed three research questions: (1) What are the monetary costs of crime? (2) What is the optimal number of offender trajectories in an Australian offender cohort? and (3) What are the monetary costs of officially recorded offending for individuals on different offender trajectories? The Semi-Parametric Group-based Method (SPGM) was used to determine the number of offender trajectories in the Queensland Longitudinal Database. This database included 41,377 individuals who were born in 1983 and 1984 and guilty of offences in Queensland that were committed when aged 10–25 years old. The costs of crime were assessed using two approaches. First, criminal justice system costs were estimated based on the number and type of contacts that individuals had with the criminal justice system as well as the length of any supervision served. Second, wider social and economic costs were assessed based on offence type. Results indicated that there were five offender trajectories, including two chronic, one moderate and two low trajectories. When costs were applied to the offender trajectories, offenders in the two chronic groups were 4.8% of the cohort but accounted for 41.1% of the total costs. On average, each chronic offender cost between $186,366 and $262,799 by the time they turned 26 years old, with 60% of the costs accounted for by the criminal justice system. On average, each chronic offender cost over 20 times more than offenders in the two low offending groups. These findings provide further evidence for the potential benefits of implementing interventions that target chronic offenders.

Inequalities in the Distribution of the Costs of Alcohol Misuse in Scotland: A Cost of Illness Study

To examine the distribution of the costs of alcohol misuse across Scotland in 2009/2010, in relation to deprivation. A cost of illness approach was used. Alcohol-related harmful effects were assessed for inclusion using a literature review. This was based upon the following categories: direct healthcare costs, intangible health costs, social care costs, crime costs and labour and productivity costs. An analysis of secondary data supplemented by a literature review was carried out to quantify each harmful effect, determine its value and provide an estimate of the distribution by deprivation. The deprivation distributions used were area measures (primarily the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation). The overall cost was £7457 million. Two alcohol harmful effects were not included in the overall cost by deprivation due to a lack of data. These were 'children's social work and hearing system' and the criminal justice system costs from 'alcohol-specific offences'. The included alcohol harmful effects demonstrated that 40.41% of the total cost arose from the 20% most deprived areas. The intangible cost category was the largest category (78.65%). The study found that the burden of alcohol harmful effects is greater in deprived groups and these burdens do not simply arise from deprived groups but are also experienced more by these groups. The study was limited by a lack of data availability in certain areas, leading to less-precise cost estimates.

Women with co-occurring substance abuse and mental disorders in Sweden: a longitudinal study of criminal justice system involvement and costs

This study aimed to estimate the cumulative direct criminal justice system costs incurred by age and offending year between 1975 and 2004 by a cohort of women with a co-occurring substance abuse an ...

Age 26 Cost–Benefit Analysis of the Child‐Parent Center Early Education Program

Using data collected up to age 26 in the Chicago Longitudinal Study, this cost-benefit analysis of the Child-Parent Centers (CPC) is the first for a sustained publicly funded early intervention. The program provides services for low-income families beginning at age 3 in 20 school sites. Kindergarten and school-age services are provided up to age 9 (third grade). Findings from a complete cohort of over 1,400 program and comparison group participants indicated that the CPCs had economic benefits in 2007 dollars that exceeded costs. The preschool program provided a total return to society of $10.83 per dollar invested (18% annual return). The primary sources of benefits were increased earnings and tax revenues and averted criminal justice system costs. The school-age program had a societal return of $3.97 per dollar invested (10% annual return). The extended intervention program (4-6 years) had a societal return of $8.24 (18% annual return). Estimates were robust across a wide range of analyses including Monte Carlo simulations. Males, 1-year preschool participants, and children from higher risk families derived greater benefits. Findings provide strong evidence that sustained programs can contribute to well-being for individuals and society.

Modelling Criminal Justice System Costs by Offence

This paper illustrates how to estimate criminal justice system costs by offence type. Criminal justice system costs are all the costs the authorities incur to prevent and investigate crime, prosecute criminals, impose sentences, and take care of victims and offenders. There are two approaches: the break-down and the bottom-up approaches. The break-down approach decomposes the aggregate budget into smaller pieces. The bottom-up approach multiplies known costs per activity by volumes for each activity and offence type. Both approaches can be combined with two types of estimates: incidence-based and prevalence-based estimates. An incidence-based estimate identifies all costs attributable to crimes committed or processed in a specified period regardless of whether these costs exceed this time period. A prevalence-based estimate identifies all costs incurred in a specified period regardless of when the crime was committed or processed. This paper looks at the differences between the two approaches and the two estimates and indicates which combination works best depending on the type of analysis and the availability of data. The methodologies are illustrated using examples from The Netherlands. These examples show that the availability of reliable data is crucial. The more assumptions have to be made, the less reliable the end results. Investing in better data in this area should be a first priority for governments interested in criminal policy evaluation.

Group Music Therapy with Women who have Experienced Intimate Partner Violence

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of group music therapy combined with other creative arts methods on the self-reported levels of anxiety, depression, and self-esteem in women who have experienced intimate partner violence. Assessments of dependent variables were made at entry, following the final session of the intervention, and 3 weeks later. Using a repeated measures design and post hoc analyses, participants (n = 7) reported a significant decrease in depression and a marginally significant decrease in anxiety. No significant effect was found for self-esteem. Most participants reported all interventions to be helpful and the series of sessions a positive experience. The findings suggest that active music therapy within a group context may be an effective intervention for ameliorating mood in women recovering from intimate partner violence. Intimate partner violence is one of the leading causes of injury and suffering for women in the United States today. The National Women's Health Information Center (2005) stated that intimate partner violence occurs when one person purposely causes either physical or mental harm to another, including physical abuse, psychological or emotional abuse, sexual assault, isolation, [or] controlling all of the victim's money, shelter, time, food, etc. Often, the violent person is a husband, former husband, boyfriend, or ex-boyfriend, but sometimes the abuser is female. Nationally, the U.S. Department of Justice (2003) reported that 691,710 incidences of nonfatal intimate partner violence occurred in 2001. A majority of these cases (85%) involved violence against women. In 2000, 1247 women and 440 men were murdered by an intimate. It should be noted that the actual number of incidences is expected to be larger than the number of reported incidences. Glicken and Sechrest (2003) estimated that the number of people who have experienced intimate partner violence may range anywhere between 1.8 to 4 million Americans per year. Intimate partner violence has become a major societal problem for people in all social, ethnic, and economic groups in the United States (Cassity & Theobold, 1990; Kakar, 1998; Wallace, 2002). Kakar stated that the effects of intimate partner violence on society include death, medical costs, mental health costs, loss in work productivity, property loss, law enforcement costs, shelter costs, foster care costs, criminal justice system costs, advocacy costs, offender's family's costs; birth defects; alcohol and substance abuse; decrease in selfesteem; fear of crime; and ultimately an acculturation to violence. Such a list does not even begin to address the disruption and devastation that intimate partner violence imposes on a personal level. Additionally, Forell and Mathews (2000) reasoned that intimate partner violence can escalate to murder and reported that one-third to one-half of all female homicide victims in the United States are killed by an intimate partner, most often after the woman leaves or decides to leave the relationship (p. 159). Group treatment has been an efficacious form of intervention chosen by shelter systems and therapists working to assist women who have experienced intimate partner violence (Dutton, 1992; Larance & Porter, 2004; Shostack, 2001; Walker, 1979). Shostack noted that many shelter systems utilize both group therapy and non-therapeutic group meetings as a means to convey information; promote peer support; and to address the feelings, attitudes, and behaviors of the residents. This type of work provides opportunities for peer feedback that supports the development of residents' assertiveness and determination. Larance and Porter stated that a supportive group environment can promote a redevelopment of a woman's social support system, feelings of trust, and promote the experience of empowerment. The creative arts therapies have been used to address needs of survivors of violence (Bass-Feld, 1994; Booker, 1999; Emerson & Shelton, 2001; Milliken, 2002). …

Estimating Criminal Justice System Costs and Cost-Savings Benefits of Day Reporting Centers

This paper reports on the net cost-savings benefits (loss) to the criminal justice system of one rural and one urban day reporting center, both of which serve high risk/high need probationers. It also discusses issues of conducting criminal justice system cost studies of community corrections programs. The average DRC participant in the rural program produced a potential cost-savings benefit to the criminal justice system during the 12-month follow-up period. In the urban county, probation officers primarily referred probationers to the DRC as an alternative to revocation. This program yields a potential net loss to the system. Without access to the DRC, however, most of these individuals would have been incarcerated and costs to the system would have been much higher.

Who pays for a life of crime? an empirical assessment of the assorted victimization costs posed by career criminals

Little research has investigated the victimization costs posed by habitual offenders. The current study seeks to fill this void using a cohort of 500 adult career criminals. The group amassed 29,882 arrests including 58 murders, 201 rapes, 55 kidnappings, 405 armed robberies, and 1101 aggravated assaults; 2801 felony convictions, and 1739 prison sentences. Their collective criminal behavior generated $415 804 000 in victim costs, $137 305 000 in criminal justice costs, and $14 736 500 in lost earnings. The average career criminal created $831 608 in victim costs, $274 610 in criminal justice system costs, and $29 473 in lost productivity, a total in excess of $1.14 million. Because a relatively small group of 500 offenders produced in excess of $570 million in human, victimization, and attendant costs, we conclude that, per capita, career criminals are among the most socially costly individuals in American society.