Targeted killings by state actors are critical challenge for forensic and criminological analysis, especially in a cross-border context. Despite much criminological and policy discussion, a striking lack exists of a systematic process of integration of visual and forensic information used to measure the validity of official accounts of investigations. This research uses the concepts of State Crime Theory and Crime Scene Reconstruction Theory to put state actions in perspective and understand forensic data in the context of accountability. A qualitative case study approach adopting an interpretivist paradigm was used to analyze source materials for this project, which included publicly available fact-finding reports, crime scene photographs, ballistics records, post-mortem results and narrative versions of the investigation. Visual content analysis, ballistic trajectory analysis and narrative-forensic consistency analysis showed that there were great discrepancies between what was being said and what the material evidence showed. Major points such as directional, controlled fire that is not related to moving vehicles, biomechanically impossible trajectories of wounds, patterned bloodstains that are spatially confined, and deviations in processing of evidence are significant. These results illustrate the effectiveness of forensic and visual evidence combination to visualize event dynamics and the critical analysis of the legitimacy of force use by the state. On the basis of these results, the research suggests the use of uniform forensic guidelines, consistency theories on evidences/ narratives, special investigators, and external controls as solutions to enhance accountability, transparency, and integrity of operations in politically sensitive or transnational murders and all other associated crimes. All in all, this study provides a replicable methodology of forensic evaluation of targeted murders that connects empirical studies and theoretical criticism and provides empirical advice on policy and investigative practice.

People sometimes view it as justified for others (and for themselves) to consciously adopt beliefs that are inconsistent with the available evidence, provided that the belief is thought to promote a moral good. In the present research we examine whether this phenomenon is observed regardless of people’s level of commitment to epistemic rationality. Two studies show that how much people value epistemic rationality predicts more favourable evaluations of other people’s evidence-based beliefs, and more unfavourable evaluations of beliefs formed based on non-evidential considerations (Study 1–2). The only circumstance where a strong commitment to epistemic rationality did not favour the evidence-based belief was when it required racial stereotyping of a man based on local crime statistics. This exception was not attributable to elevated Care/harm concerns, did not depend on whether the target was black or white (Study 3 A), or on whether stereotyping was based on skin colour or clothing (Study 3B).

Abstract. Understanding how individuals perceive the importance of location information is critical for improving the communication of spatial data. This study investigates how demographic factors, particularly age, affect the perceived significance of location in different contexts. Using survey data from 101 UK-based participants, we analysed responses to questions assessing the informativeness of location relative to other contextual data (e.g., time, source, quantity) in scenarios involving pollution and sexual crime statistics. The results indicate that age is a key determinant in evaluating location information, with older participants placing greater emphasis on location for pollution data, while gender emerged as more influential in the context of sexual crime. Education showed minimal impact. These findings suggest that location perceptions vary between different age groups and contexts, with implications for tailoring location-based information presentation to diverse audiences. Future research should explore adaptive strategies for communicating spatial data across demographic groups to enhance comprehension and decision-making.

This research explores the media representation of police checkpoints and its impact on public perception and community trust. Police checkpoints serve as a critical mechanism for law enforcement, yet their portrayal in media significantly influences community attitudes towards police practices. This study identifies notable gaps in existing literature, particularly concerning the nuances of how different demographics perceive police checkpoints and the extent to which media narratives shape these perceptions. Previous research has concentrated predominantly on crime statistics and police efficiency, neglecting to analyze the qualitative aspects of community experiences and the role of media in framing these experiences. This gap highlights the need for an in-depth investigation into the socio-cultural factors that inform public sentiment and trust in law enforcement. Utilizing a qualitative research methodology, this study conducts interviews and focus groups with community members, law enforcement officials, and media representatives. Participants are asked to share their perspectives on media portrayals of police checkpoints and their effects on community trust and perceptions of safety. The findings reveal that sensationalized media coverage often fosters mistrust, while balanced reporting can enhance community relationships with law enforcement. Furthermore, this research underscores how narratives vary across different socio-economic and racial demographics, indicating that media representation is not only a reflection of reality but also a powerful tool that can either reinforce or diminish community trust. This study aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on policing strategies and community relations, advocating for more responsible media practices that consider the intrinsic link between representation and public perception.

This study examines how livestock theft – the most common rural crime in South Africa – is portrayed in the media across the nine regions between April 2018 and March 2025. Using quantitative media visibility analysis, it evaluates the alignment between public discourse and criminal prevalence by comparing digital media mentions of ‘stock theft’ and ‘veediefstal’ with official crime statistics. The results show a glaring disparity: while livestock theft remains under-reported in the media, farm murders – an unrelated but more sensational rural crime – receive disproportionate coverage, particularly in Indigenous and Afrikaans-language media. Urban provinces garner the most media attention despite having lower theft rates, underscoring linguistic and infrastructure biases. The increased media references coincide with the National Livestock Theft Prevention Forum (NSTPF) receiving statutory funding in 2022, indicating that institutional involvement can enhance visibility. Using Tabbert’s linguistic framing and Shoemaker and Reese’s news production theory, the study argues that media coverage is manufactured rather than reflective. It concludes that the South African media coverage of livestock theft is skewed by language and geography, sidelining rural communities and distorting public understanding. A more inclusive media is essential to ensure justice, equity and visibility for all.

While organised crime has long been entrenched in Latin America, the spatial configuration of violence associated with it has undergone significant transformations in recent years. Homicide rates have escalated beyond traditional epicentres, spreading to countries once perceived as relatively safe. In Ecuador, the homicide rate rose by 429% between 2019 and 2024, largely driven by drug-related violence, while in Uruguay, 21% of homicides are connected to conflicts related to the illegal drug market. Beyond security concerns, organised crime undermines governance, erodes trust and constrains development. This article develops a mid-range analytical framework to explain these trends, linking criminal group fragmentation, institutional weakness and illegal market dynamics through the concepts of criminal governance and thick crime habitats. Using comparative case studies of Montevideo, Rosario, Guayaquil and Limón, it shows how organised crime adapts to varying contexts of institutional fragility and illegal market dynamics. The findings contribute to the refinement of existing theories of state–crime relations and highlight the emergence of new forms of criminal governance in urban and lower-violence contexts.

This study is motivated by the increasing dynamics of criminal activity within the jurisdiction of the East Nusa Tenggara Regional Police (Polda NTT), characterized by regional variations and complex causal factors. Conventional crimes such as assault, theft, and mob violence dominate the crime landscape and significantly affect social stability. The purpose of this research is to analyze the patterns, causes, and crime control strategies implemented by Polda NTT in maintaining public security and order. The study employs an empirical legal approach using a mixed-methods design, combining quantitative analysis of crime statistics with qualitative interviews involving police officers. Data were obtained from the Directorate of General Criminal Investigation (Ditreskrimum) of Polda NTT and cover all police jurisdictions, including one city police department and twenty-one district police offices. Findings reveal that crime rates in NTT are strongly influenced by social, economic, cultural, and geographical factors. The most prevalent crimes include assault, ordinary theft, traffic accidents, and mob violence. Major contributing factors consist of a local culture of violence, alcohol consumption, economic hardship, and low legal literacy. Polda NTT’s strategies involve preventive measures (routine patrols and public legal education), repressive actions (law enforcement and offender guidance), and humanistic approaches such as the Jumat Curhat program, which facilitates direct dialogue with the community.

Marital rape defined as sexual intercourse without consent within marriage remains one of the most contested, invisible, and misunderstood forms of domestic violence in India. Despite global recognition of bodily autonomy as a fundamental human right, Indian law continues to uphold a colonial‑era exemption that denies married women the same protection granted to unmarried women. This research paper examines the historical, legal, social, and psychological dimensions of marital rape in India through an extensive review of existing literature, national crime data, international reports, and secondary quantitative findings. The purpose of this study is to analyze the deep‑rooted patriarchal norms that shape the legal system, understand the complex barriers that prevent survivors from reporting abuse, and evaluate the broader implications of continuing to treat forced sexual intercourse within marriage as a non‑criminal act. Drawing upon data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS‑5), the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), the World Health Organization (WHO), and multiple NGO reports, the research highlights significant discrepancies between the recorded cases of domestic violence and the actual prevalence of spousal sexual violence in Indian households. While official crime statistics show limited reporting, independent studies consistently reveal far higher rates of coercion and abuse, suggesting that silence is not evidence of safety but a reflection of stigma, dependence, and a lack of legal remedies. The literature further demonstrates that marital rape affects women across socioeconomic backgrounds, challenging the misconception that it is confined to lower‑income or less‑educated groups. Instead, the findings illustrate that hierarchical gender norms and social expectations surrounding marriage play a central role in keeping survivors silent, regardless of class or region. The study also incorporates expert opinions and secondary accounts from legal scholars, human rights advocates, and social researchers, revealing a stark divide between international human rights standards and India’s current legal framework. While more than 150 countries recognize marital rape as a criminal offense, India remains among a shrinking minority that continues to treat marriage as an automatic and permanent form of consent. This disconnect not only violates the principles of bodily integrity and personal liberty but also contradicts constitutional guarantees of equality and dignity. The research further explores the psychological consequences of marital rape, underscoring its long‑term impact on survivors’ emotional well‑being, self‑perception, and mental health factors that are often dismissed or minimized because the violence occurs within the context of marriage. Overall, this paper argues that the failure to criminalize marital rape perpetuates a culture of silence, normalizes coercion, and reinforces harmful gender dynamics within Indian society. By synthesizing quantitative data, legal analyses, and expert commentary, the research concludes that acknowledging marital rape as a crime is essential for advancing gender justice, protecting survivors, and aligning India with global human rights norms. The findings underscore the urgent need for legal reform, social awareness, and a systemic shift toward understanding consent as an ongoing, indispensable aspect of intimate relationships. Without meaningful change, marital rape will continue to remain hidden in plain sight an often ignored but deeply damaging form of violence within the Indian household.

The Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, imposed by British colonial authorities in India, was a draconian law that branded entire communities as “hereditary criminals,” enforcing systematic surveillance, forced settlement, and social ostracization. This paper provides a comprehensive examination of the Act’s origins, implementation, and enduring legacy. It begins by contextualizing the Act within India’s caste system, tracing how ancient religious codifications – from the Rigveda to the Manusmriti – established and justified a rigid hierarchy that colonial policies later exploited. We analyze the language and intent of the Act, illustrating how the British administration wielded it as an instrument to control nomadic and marginalized groups by presuming criminality by birth. The short-term impacts on Dalits (formerly “Untouchables”), Adivasis (indigenous tribes), and other minorities were severe: communities faced loss of land, curtailed freedoms, and state-sanctioned stigma, with an estimated thirteen million people across 127 communities directly affected by Independence. The Act’s long-term repercussions persisted well beyond its repeal in 1949, as independent India’s Habitual Offenders Act (1952) continued to profile and police these denotified tribes, entrenching cycles of poverty and prejudice. Crucially, this paper situates the Criminal Tribes Act in a comparative global context. Parallels are drawn to other systems of institutionalized oppression: the Jim Crow laws in the United States, which enforced a codified racial apartheid and denied African Americans basic rights; the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, whereby ~120,000 people (two-thirds U.S. citizens) were incarcerated without cause; and South Africa’s apartheid regime, which legally classified citizens by race to maintain white supremacy. These comparisons reveal common patterns of using the law to strip targeted groups of rights under the guise of “social order” or “national security.” The paper also examines modern surveillance measures – from preventive detention of Muslims under anti-terror laws to predictive policing technologies – arguing that the underlying logic of collective suspicion echoes the legacy of the 1871 Act in contemporary forms. Through extensive use of scholarly sources, including archival colonial reports and the writings of historians and anthropologists, as well as eyewitness accounts and recent news reports, we highlight how the narrative of “born criminals” created by the Act remains etched in societal attitudes. We incorporate historical data (caste-based census records, crime statistics) and present-day metrics (crime rates against Dalits, wealth and education disparities by caste) to visualize the enduring impact. Graphs and charts are used to illustrate trends such as the economic marginalization of Dalits and the racial disparities in incarceration that mirror caste inequalities. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that while the Criminal Tribes Act was repealed, its spirit survives in prejudices and legal practices worldwide. It calls for a critical re-examination of laws and social structures that continue to otherize and criminalize marginalized communities, advocating for reforms grounded in equality, restorative justice, and the protection of fundamental rights. The global legacy of the Criminal Tribes Act serves as a cautionary tale of how state power can perpetuate social stratification – and a reminder of the ongoing struggle to dismantle such oppressive systems.

In recent years India has witnessed intensified public debate around the dual phenomena of persistent violence against women and concerns about alleged misuse of laws enacted to protect women—especially in matrimonial and domestic contexts. This paper critically examines the societal and individual impacts of such alleged misuse on men and on broader social structures during 2024–2025. Drawing on official crime statistics, select judicial rulings, empirical studies, and media investigations, the study situates the controversy within evolving criminal justice practice and public discourse. It argues that while women’s protection laws (e.g., Section 498A IPC, Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, and related provisions) remain essential for redress and deterrence, credible evidence of their misuse—where present—produces real harms: reputational damage, economic loss, psychological trauma for accused men and their families, erosion of trust in legal institutions, and polarized gender discourse. The paper analyses how courts and policy actors have responded (including procedural safeguards and reminders about due process), synthesizes quantitative and qualitative evidence on prevalence and outcomes, and offers policy recommendations to preserve effective protection for victims while minimizing opportunities for abuse. The paper concludes that reform must be evidence-driven, protect due process, bolster victim support, and reduce adversarial escalation through mediation and stronger investigatory standards.

Understanding the relationship between temperature, crime, and quality of life is crucial for addressing urban challenges and fostering sustainable development. While community safety is a key focus of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the link between temperature, property crime, and quality of life remains underexplored. Most studies emphasize violent crimes, neglecting property crimes and their nuanced interactions with environmental factors. Additionally, the indirect effects of temperature and crime on quality of life lack sufficient investigation. This study addresses these gaps by analysing the relationship between temperature, property crime, and quality of life using machine learning techniques, including, Generalized Linear Model, Support Vector Machine, Gradient Boosted Tree, Decision Tree and Random Forest algorithms. Data were collected from 317 face-to-face surveys in Taman Dato’ Senu, Sentul, Kuala Lumpur, alongside official crime statistics from the Royal Malaysia Police. Results indicate that property crime significantly influences quality of life, whereas temperature shows minimal direct impact. These findings highlight the complex dynamics between climate and social behaviour and demonstrate the potential of machine learning for precise, data-driven insights to support urban planning and policy decisions in tropical cities.

Every crime not reported is a crime not recorded, and every crime not recorded is a truth concealed”. In South Africa, the reliability of crime statistics remains a critical concern, raising questions about whether official data reflect the true extent of crime or merely the efficacy of policing. This study aimed to explore the processes, challenges, and effectiveness of crime statistics within the South African Police Service (SAPS) and their implications for policy and operational decision-making. Adopting a qualitative research approach, the study employed a descriptive, case-study design to gain in-depth insights from twelve purposively selected participants. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analysed using thematic content analysis to identify key patterns and recurring themes. The findings revealed that unreported crimes significantly distort official statistics, that public mistrust and logistical challenges hinder accurate reporting, and that inconsistencies in data classification and recording undermine the utility of crime statistics as a monitoring tool. Participants highlighted the role of complementary systems, such as CAS, GIS, CTA, and CPA, in enhancing crime data accuracy, while international comparisons underscored the benefits of multi-source data integration. The study recommends targeted interventions to improve public trust, standardise data management practices, and establish independent verification mechanisms to enhance the reliability of crime statistics. By bridging theoretical perspectives from Routine Activity Theory and Social Disorganization Theory with empirical insights, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of underreporting dynamics and provides actionable strategies for improving crime monitoring and policy formulation in South Africa.

ABSTRACT South Korea is undergoing one of the fastest demographic transitions worldwide, with older adult theft emerging as a distinctive criminological challenge. While conventional criminology has long assumed that offending declines with age, official statistics show a marked rise in theft among older adults. This study investigates whether the apparent surge reflects substantive behavioural change or a visibility effect resulting from institutional and procedural dynamics that amplify recorded offending. Drawing on official statistics (2014–2023) and fourteen in-depth interviews with frontline police officers, the analysis employs inductive thematic methods to identify five key dimensions – individual, social, institutional, technological, and procedural. Findings indicate that elderly theft often involves non-serious offences, such as shoplifting or taking delivery boxes, which have become increasingly visible through expanded CCTV surveillance and formalised reporting practices rather than reflecting heightened offending tendencies. The results suggest that the rise in elderly theft is less about new propensities among older populations than about broader structural transformations in policing, surveillance, and social norms. Overall, the findings indicate that the apparent increase in older adult theft primarily reflects institutional and procedural shifts in detection and reporting, rather than a genuine behavioural escalation. The study contributes to criminological theory by highlighting the socially constructed nature of crime statistics and offers policy implications for developing proportionate, age-sensitive responses to elderly offending.

The article explores the essence, role, and significance of journalistic investigations in identifying, exposing, and preventing crimes in modern society. The legal, ethical, and social aspects of investigative journalism are revealed in the context of ensuring transparency in public administration, upholding human rights, and combating corruption. It is determined that journalistic investigations play an important role in the system of public control, contributing to increased trust in governmental institutions, the development of legal culture, and social responsibility. The main methods and techniques of journalistic investigations in relation to open criminal proceedings are analyzed, including information gathering, conducting interviews, working with documents, digital forensics, and the use of modern information technologies. Particular attention is paid to the issues of adherence to ethical principles and legal norms during journalistic investigations, including the confidentiality of sources, factual accuracy, and the safety of journalists. The paper summarizes examples of international and Ukrainian experiences of how journalistic investigations influence legislative and policy reforms, including the investigations of the Watergate scandal, the “Panama Papers,” the #MeToo movement, as well as the Ukrainian projects Bihus.info and “Slidstvo.Info.” Theoretical generalizations of the study indicate that journalistic investigations represent a multifaceted interdisciplinary phenomenon that combines legal norms, ethical principles, methods of criminalistics, and social mechanisms of influence on society. In modern academic discourse, investigative journalism is viewed not only as a form of publicistic activity aimed at informing the public, but also as an instrument of public control and an informal element of the crime prevention system. Its essence lies in the ability to ensure the public exposure of offenses, promote adherence to the rule of law, and enhance the transparency of governmental activities. From a criminalistics perspective, journalistic investigations function as an auxiliary mechanism for collecting, verifying, and systematizing information that may have evidentiary or orientational value for law enforcement agencies. At the same time, they encourage society to recognize the importance of legality and social justice, fostering an active civic position. Overall, journalistic investigations should be regarded as a parallel mechanism of criminalistic activity that combines legal, social, and informational functions, contributing to the efficiency of the state crime prevention system and the development of democratic institutions in society.

This paper examines how vocal participation, communicative visibility, and dissent shape democratic resilience across institutional, legal, educational, and civic contexts. Moving beyond normative theory, democracy is conceptualized as a communicative system in which voice and silence structure institutional behavior and epistemic legitimacy. Drawing on critical-institutionalist and deliberative frameworks, three propositions—Democratic Efficacy, Deliberative Robustness, and the Spiral Counter—are tested through six case studies: Norway’s NAV social security misinterpretation; Norway’s Barnevernet case–parents’ appeals to the European Court of Human Rights; U.S. federal court deportation reversals; democratic pressures in India; minority visibility in Australian educational materials; and Canadian police-reported hate crime statistics. These events illustrate how visibility, voice, and institutional response interact. Using comparative indices of Speech–Responsiveness, Deliberative Robustness, and Resistance Spirals, this paper demonstrates that dissent and openness generate corrective feedback, while suppression fosters distortion and drift. Legitimacy in democratic systems emerges not solely through deliberation but also through contestation, as the presence of disagreement enables epistemic correction. Conversely, silence—whether imposed or internalized—constrains mechanisms of correction and narrows democratic possibility, reducing the inclusivity and adaptability of democratic legitimacy.

Social media has made huge adjustments in rural areas like Mountain Province, where crimes such as online scams, cyber libel, and identity theft are taking place. The reasons are pretty simple: poor digital knowledge among people, the area being a poor location, and local police being ineffective. Though national crime statistics are not clear, local authorities detect a significant increase in those crimes that are mostly not reported. The current law (R.A. 10175) is outdated and unable to deal with new crimes such as AI-related ones, and local police are not well-equipped for law enforcement. To this end, the paper proposes a collaboration among various stakeholders to review the law, get started with local 'Bantay Online' safety awareness programs, and integrate digital safety into schools, thus ensuring technology remains a good partner of the community and does not compromise the safety level.

This exploratory study emphasizes the importance of ensuring tourist safety amid the growing shift toward local-centric tourism. It investigates how crime patterns in tourist destinations vary depending on resource type (natural vs. cultural) and spatial characteristics (user-centered vs. specialized-resource-centered). Using crime statistics ratings from the Ministry of the Interior and Safety’s ‘Living Safety Map’ for 167 major tourist destinations across Korea, the analysis identified that cultural-resource-based sites experienced more spontaneous crimes such as theft and assault, whereas natural-resource-based sites showed a higher proportion of premeditated crimes including murder and arson. Furthermore, user-centered destinations exhibited higher overall crime risks than specialized-resource-centered ones, with the highest risk observed in destinations that were both cultural-resource-based and user-centered. Although the interaction effect between resource type and spatial characteristics was not statistically significant, the findings provide empirical evidence that crime patterns differ across destination types. This study offers practical implications for policymakers and destination managers by suggesting the need for tailored safety strategies and the creation of proactive crime prevention environments.

The purpose of this study is to present the possibility of introducing private security as a support policy for the socially underprivileged to prevent crime victims for the elderly living alone and to arouse social interest in the elderly living alone. This study conducted literature research on data related to private security for the safety of the elderly living alone, official statistics, and academic journals. According to the KOSIS National Statistical Portal data, in Korea, the total population in 2025 was 51,836,564, the elderly population was 10,513,907 (20.34%), the elderly population was 2,335,996 households living alone (4.52%), but in 2045, the total population was 49,835,031, the elderly population was 18,235,107 (37.34%) and 4,631,622 households living alone (9.48%) were estimated, and the number of elderly households living alone is expected to reach 10% of the total population. According to the crime statistics data of the prosecution office, the number of elderly victims accounted for about 10% of the total number of crime victims. Among the crime types of elderly victims, the proportion of property crimes was the highest at 54.63%, and the number of violent crime victims was higher in female elderly (1,152) than in male elderly (425 cases). The vulnerability of the elderly living alone and fear of crime negatively affect the life of the elderly living alone. Private security guards are able to be put into the field to prevent crime, and through this, it is possible to realize the safety welfare of the elderly living alone. Accordingly, the application of public services and private security services as a cooperative model for realizing the safety welfare of the elderly living alone and policy proposals for this were made. It is necessary to establish a joint response system in which the government, local governments, private security companies, local communities, and elderly people living alone participate, and to expand the role of the administrative welfare center in charge of welfare for the elderly.

The rise in crime and insecurity in Akwa Ibom State from 1987 to 1999, led to the proliferation of several non-state armed groups like Vigilante Groups of Nigeria, among others In spite of this development, however, issues and concerns were constantly being raised about them regarding whether they could really be agents of policing against the backdrop of their penchant for human rights violations and extra-judicial killings. It is against this background that this article examines the role of vigilante groups in policing Akwa Ibom State. Using a content analysis method, and drawing information from both primary and secondary sources, the research observed that the activities of vigilante groups between 1987 and 1999 were not guided by a body of law nor did it conform to the principles of rule of law and constitutionalism, hence their services were not accepted by the general public in Akwa Ibom State. The paper concludes that as long as the vigilante groups, like the formal policing establishments, remained the instruments of intimidation of political opponents by the politicians that control them; the terrain of vigilantism would continue to be in the realm of dejection; hence the need to set up a body of law that guards the conduct of Vigilantism and activities of vigilante groups in Akwa Ibom State.

The silence within the criminological community on the genocide of Palestinian people in Gaza, and the ongoing apartheid, land dispossession and other human rights abuses of Palestinians in the Occupied Territory of East Jerusalem and the West Bank, and in Israel, is pronounced. This article sets out to unpack why these events should be seen as core to the work we undertake within the discipline. The article argues that the events in Palestine (including Gaza and the Occupied Territory) cut across many matters of widespread importance to criminology including, child protection, corporate crime, disability justice, discrimination and violence against women; ecocide and environmental criminology; global criminology; human rights; Indigenous knowledges and justice; green criminology; media; policing; settler colonialism and coloniality; state crime; teaching and research in criminology; war crimes and youth justice. It is also argued that there are strong ethical values underpinning the urgency of taking a committed position, including a responsibility to oppose genocide and apartheid, to uphold the values of preserving human life in various cultural forms and the non-human environment that sustains life, and opposition to racism, discrimination and oppression in all its manifestations.