Counseling Psychology Research Research Articles

Institutional Research Productivity, Use of Theory-Driven Research, and Statistical Application in Counseling Psychology

The author reacts to the three core articles in the Scientific Forum of the May 2005 issue of The Counseling Psychologist about institutional research productivity, the use of theory-driven research, and the application of structural equation modeling to research in counseling psychology. To have a research base that maximizes divergent perspectives, the author argues that the literature should have a diverse group of contributors. Ideas regarding how to build theories, how to improve the precision of theories, and how to test theories in counseling psychology are discussed.

Future Directions of Structural Equation Modeling in Counseling Psychology

The four reactions in the May 2005 issue of The Counseling Psychologist address several considerations regarding the use of structural equation modeling (SEM) in counseling psychology research, including its appropriateness for analyzing one’s data and testing one versus multiple theoretical models. In addition, points that are not mentioned in the author’s original article were also covered, such as evaluating the fit of one’s model, item parceling, and the generalizability of findings. These four reactions are discussed in the context of raising awareness among counseling psychology researchers of considerations associated with the use of SEM.

Who Defines What Is Valued in Counseling Psychology? Reply to the Four Reactions

The four reviews of the state of the counseling psychology research base in the May 2005 issue of The Counseling Psychologist provide thought-provoking critiques of institutional research productivity. In this rejoinder to these critiques, the authors frame their responses in terms of explaining methodological issues in the original study, discussing the intended use and interpretation of their findings, exploring perceived schisms and values of the field, and offering suggestions for future research and discussion.

Quality and trustworthiness in qualitative research in counseling psychology.

This article examines concepts of the trustworthiness, or credibility, of qualitative research. Following a “researcher-as-instrument,” or self-reflective, statement, the paradigmatic underpinnings of various criteria for judging the quality of qualitative research are explored, setting the stage for a discussion of more transcendent standards (those not associated with specific paradigms) for conducting quality research: social validity, subjectivity and reflexivity, adequacy of data, and adequacy of interpretation. Finally, current guidelines for writing and publishing qualitative research are reviewed, and strategies for conducting and writing qualitative research reports are suggested. Qualitative research, ensuing from a variety of disciplines, paradigms, and epistemologies, embraces multiple standards of quality, known variously as validity, credibility, rigor ,o rtrustworthiness. In addition to some standards that may be thought of as somewhat universal across disciplines and paradigms, the “goodness” (Morrow & Smith, 2000) of qualitative inquiry is assessed on the basis of the paradigmatic underpinnings of the research and the standards of the discipline. Thus, a grounded theory study or a consensual qualitative research investigation in counseling psychology that is rooted in a postpositivist or constructivist/interpretivist paradigm will look quite different from a critical ethnography in education; and the standards appropriate for evaluating these studies will vary accordingly. I begin this article by addressing the paradigmatic underpinnings of trustworthiness or rigor in qualitative research. Next, I discuss central topics related to trustworthiness or validity that span paradigms and may be thought of as relevant across most research designs. I then provide an overview of guidelines that have been suggested for evaluating qualitative research, particularly in psychology. Finally, I offer recommendations for enhancing the quality of qualitative research in counseling psychology and suggest strategies for writing and publishing. First, however, in keeping with the standard of reflexivity as a way for researchers to inform their audiences about their perspectives as well as to manage their subjectivities, I describe my own assumptions about qualitative research methodology and quality.

Qualitative research in counseling psychology: A primer on research paradigms and philosophy of science.

This article presents an overview of philosophy of science and research paradigms. The philosophy of science parameters of ontology, epistemology, axiology, rhetorical structure, and methodology are discussed across the research paradigms of positivism, postpositivism, constructivism-interpretivism, and the critical-ideological perspective. Counseling researchers are urged to locate their inquiry approaches within identifiable research paradigms, and examples of locating 2 popular inquiry approaches-consensual qualitative research and grounded theory-are provided. Examples of how counseling research would proceed from varying paradigms are explored, and a call is made for expanding the training students receive in philosophy of science and qualitative approaches to inquiry.

Paradigms, praxis, problems, and promise: Grounded theory in counseling psychology research.

In this article, the author presents an overview of the qualitative research approach termed grounded theory (B. G. Glaser, 1978, 1992; B. G. Glaser & A. L. Strauss, 1967; A. L. Strauss, 1987; A. L. Strauss & J. Corbin, 1990, 1998). The author first locates the method conceptually and paradigmatically (paradigms) and then outlines the procedures for implementing it and judging its quality (praxis). The author follows with a discussion of selected issues that arise in using the approach (problems) and concludes by noting the appropriateness of grounded theory for counseling psychology research (promise).

Ethnographic decision tree modeling: A research method for counseling psychology.

This article describes ethnographic decision tree modeling (EDTM; C. H. Gladwin, 1989) as a mixed method design appropriate for counseling psychology research. EDTM is introduced and located within a postpositivist research paradigm. Decision theory that informs EDTM is reviewed, and the 2 phases of EDTM are highlighted. The 1st phase, model building, is an inductive process consisting of a series of ethnographic interviews designed to describe and diagram the choices of decision makers. The 2nd phase, model validation, utilizes linear hypothesis testing borrowed from a quantitative research paradigm. During model validation, the group decision model is tested using a separate group of participants from the same population. Strengths and limitations of EDTM, and its potential applications in counseling psychology research, are emphasized.

A time and place for qualitative and mixed methods in counseling psychology research.

Fordham University-Lincoln CenterWe are pleased to present this special issue of the Journal ofCounseling Psychology (JCP ) on qualitative and mixed methodsresearch. The major goal of the special issue is to introduce avariety of qualitative and mixed methods approaches to counselingpsychologists and to encourage their increased application in re-search. Qualitative and mixed methods have been underutilized incounseling research, as most counseling psychologists weretrained in the postpositivist research paradigm and associatedquantitative methods (McLeod, 2001; Morrow & Smith, 2000).However, the debate over the credibility of qualitative methods hasbegun to shift toward greater acceptance of such designs (Camic,Rhodes, & Yardley, 2003). We welcome these signs of change.Our position as guest editors, and the position of the many authorscontributing to this special issue, is that the field of counselingpsychology will be enhanced significantly by the increased use ofqualitative and mixed methods research designs rooted in diversephilosophical paradigms.Though counseling psychologists have long endorsed the con-cept of methodological pluralism and have made repeated calls forincreased openness to qualitative research (e.g., Hoshmand, 1989;Howard, 1983; Kopala & Suzuki, 1999; Polkinghorne, 1984), thefield has been slow to expand the research paradigms from whichit operates and the research methodologies it uses (McLeod, 2001).At present, only a minority of published research in psychology,including counseling psychology, is qualitative in nature (Rennie,Watson, & Monteiro, 2002), and only 10% of U.S.-based counsel-ing psychology training programs require a qualitative researchcourse of its doctoral students (Ponterotto, 2005). Gergen (2001)has expressed concern that our reluctance to engage in a postmod-ern dialogue has resulted in a conception of psychological sciencethat is “historically frozen and is endangered by its isolation fromthe major intellectual and global transformations of the past halfcentury” (p. 803).McMullen (2002) has also described the lack of dialogue be-tween proponents of quantitative and qualitative methods. She hasexpressed concern that we are at risk of bifurcation in appliedpsychological research between researchers conversant with alter-native paradigms and their associated ontological and epistemo-logical bases and those who remain grounded within the traditionalmethodologies, with little interest in or knowledge of alternativemethodologies. The risks of such bifurcation are not insignificant;they involve more than a debate over a defensible choice for one’sown research. As McMullen pointed out,

Ideographic concept mapping in counseling psychology research: Conceptual overview, methodology, and an illustration.

This article provides an overview of the research approach called concept mapping at conceptual, methodological, and practical levels. The relevance of the approach to counseling psychology research is discussed, and the approach is located conceptually in the realm of qualitative methods available to counseling psychology researchers. To illustrate ideographic concept mapping, the authors collect, present, and discuss data from 2 psychologists regarding their conception of the scientist-practitioner construct.

Ethnography in counseling psychology research: Possibilities for application.

The emphasis placed on prolonged engagement, fieldwork, and participant observation has prevented wide-scale use of ethnography in counseling psychology. This article provides a discussion of ethnography in terms of definition, process, and potential ethical dilemmas. The authors propose that ethnographically informed methods can enhance counseling psychology research conducted with multicultural communities and provide better avenues toward a contextual understanding of diversity as it relates to professional inquiry. Ethnography constitutes a major focus in the psychological literature; however, debates continue regarding the usage of these qualitative methods (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000a). Despite the fact that ethnographic methods fall within the purview of postpositivism and constructivism–interpretivism frameworks, positivists, postpositivists, and postmodernists currently argue over the definition of ethnography and criteria for evaluating ethnographic work. This article seeks to explore the meanings and manifestations of ethnography, as well as the utility of these methods for counseling psychology. We begin with definitions of ethnography. Next, we delineate the various types of ethnography used in contemporary social science research. Third, we explore concrete strategies for conducting ethnographic research. Ethical concerns and practices to establish validity and trustworthiness are also highlighted. Finally, we provide a discussion of challenges and recommendations for future directions in the use of ethnographic methods in counseling psychology.

"Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research": Correction to Frazier et al. (2004).

"Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research": Correction to Frazier et al. (2004).

Complementary Approaches to Individual Differences Using Paired Comparisons and Multidimensional Scaling: Applications to Multicultural Counseling Competence.

Multicultural research has traditionally involved normative methodology and definitions of individual differences. To further our understanding of multicultural concerns, the authors urge researchers to broaden the repertoire of methods used in these inquiries. First, the authors highlight the differences among normative, idiographic, and idiothetic approaches. Then, the authors introduce the use of paired comparison methods and multidimensional scaling techniques for use within these approaches. Last, examples of research using idiographic and idiothetic approaches with multicultural counseling competence as the focus are provided. Several leaders in multicultural research have underscored the importance of nontraditional methods of inquiry to explore multicultural concerns (Fuertes, Bartolomew, & Nichols, 2001; Helms, 2002; Ponterotto, 2002; Ponterotto & Alexander, 1996). They argue that reliance on traditional quantitative methods and definitions of individual differences may limit the understanding of multicultural concerns. Traditional definitions of individual differences involve the assessment of individuals on a common construct and then the comparison of scores relative to others in the sample or population, that is, the normative approach. Seeking to expand the range of approaches used to explore multicultural issues, some researchers call for the use of less traditional quantitative methods (e.g., Helms, 2002), whereas others champion more qualitative methods (e.g., Ponterotto, 2002), which eschew the common normative definition of individual differences. Despite these calls for alternative approaches, an overwhelming reliance has been placed on more traditional quantitative methods that focus on normative differences. Although certainly such inquiries have enhanced our understanding of multicultural concerns, we too suggest that expanding our methodological approaches and analytical tools will result in a more complex understanding of multicultural issues as they pertain to counseling. Moreover, despite our present focus on the multicultural domain, we suggest that research and practice in counseling psychology broadly would benefit from similar applications. Echoing Allport (1937) in the personality realm, we argue for the complementary adoption of normative and idiographic approaches to assist in multicultural inquiries. As a way to bridge the normative–idiographic divide, we then introduce the use of idiothetic approaches (Klinger, 1995; Lamiell, 1981), in which both the group and individual level of analysis are the foci. First, we highlight the differences between normative, idiographic, and idiothetic approaches. We proceed by positing that the following two main issues may explain why researchers have not generally adopted idiographic and idiothetic approaches to explore multicultural concerns: (a) a lack of familiarity with these approaches and (b) a lack of knowledge of the analytic tools that could be used. We then introduce paired comparison and multidimensional scaling (MDS) as examples of assessment and analytic tools associated with idiographic and idiothetic studies. In the last section, we provide some examples of research applications in the multicultural area. Although we see our argument appropriate to all counseling research, we focus specifically on using examples in the multicultural counseling competence area because (a) this is a multicultural content area that has several normative studies and no quantitative idiographic or idiothetic research, (b) the nature and measurement of the common constructs used continues to be debated, and (c) social desirability and the issue of bias are particularly salient in this domain.

The sexual and mental health problems of street children: a transcultural preventative approach in counselling psychology

Sexual and mental health problems are on the increase world-wide especially among street children. A high proportion of vulnerable children who live in the street suffer exploitation, poor quality of life that often lead to sexual and mental health problems. Evidence is needed on the theoretical perspectives taken to address the existing gaps in counselling psychology research and practice on the plight of street children. It is also important to identify interventions that could be implemented to prevent the expansion of sexual and mental health problems among street children. Because of paucity of evidence in counselling psychology, an attempt has been made to highlight the risks factors associated with street children such as sexual exploitation, engaging in unsafe sex at an early age, promiscuity, unplanned pregnancy which tend to lead to mental health problems. Case studies are presented that illustrate the importance of a preventative transcultural approach in counselling psychology.

Testing Moderator and Mediator Effects in Counseling Psychology Research.

The goals of this article are to (a) describe differences between moderator and mediator effects; (b) provide nontechnical descriptions of how to examine each type of effect, including study design, analysis, and interpretation of results; (c) demonstrate how to analyze each type of effect; and (d) provide suggestions for further reading. The authors focus on the use of multiple regression because it is an accessible data-analytic technique contained in major statistical packages. When appropriate, they also note limitations of using regression to detect moderator and mediator effects and describe alternative procedures, particularly structural equation modeling. Finally, to illustrate areas of confusion in counseling psychology research, they review research testing moderation and mediation that was published in the Journal of Counseling Psychology during 2001.

Using Social Class in Counseling Psychology Research.

Social class is an important cultural construct, but it is poorly used in research. Problems in using social class may be associated with its poor definition in previous studies; conflating between social class and socioeconomic status; using objective indices such as income, education, and occupati

Evidence-Based Practice:

A consensus has long existed that the scientist-practitioner model has failed to reflect what was envisioned by the Boulder Conference participants and endorsed by counseling psychology at the Greyston and Georgia Conferences. Counseling psychology's commitment, however, to the scientist-practitioner model has not faltered. Furthermore, developments within the health care system (e.g., managed care, empirically validated treatments, treatment guidelines) demand from psychologists increasing levels of scientific knowledge and a wider range of research skills. Psychology's current commitment to positivist explanation , scientific knowledge characterized by law-governed causal processes, is at the core of the scientist-practitioner split. To integrate scientist-practitioner ideals into a comprehensive approach to counseling psychology training, research, and practice, counseling psychologists should embrace an identity as evidence- based practitioners. Inherent in this framework is a philosophical, scientific, political, and social shift toward an expanded view of what constitutes scientific evidence.

Heterosexual Identity Development

This article builds on earlier conceptual models of identity development to propose a model of heterosexual identity development. A review of the existing literature on majority and minority group identity development, heterosexuality, and other relevant foundational literature is provided as a rationale for the proposed model. Based on an analysis of the strengths and limitations of the existing literature, the authors propose a preliminary model of heterosexual identity development. The article concludes with implications for research, practice, training, and measurement in counseling psychology.

Client Perspectives of Multicultural Counseling Competence

Multicultural competence is a burgeoning area of research in counseling psychology. However, there has been little focus on understanding multicultural competence from the perspective of clients. This study used qualitative interviews and grounded theory to develop a model of clients’ perspectives of multicultural counseling. The resulting model suggested that clients’ experiences of multicultural counseling were contingent on their self-identified needs and on how well they felt the counselor met these needs. Moreover, clients appeared to actively manage and moderate the extent to which culture was broached in counseling based on a host of conditions including counseling relationship, salience of identity, counselor behavior, and expectations of counseling, to name a few. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Clients’ Perceptions of Multicultural Counseling Competence

This article presents a reaction to Pope-Davis et al.’s major contribution concerning the importance of obtaining clients’ perceptions of counselors’ multicultural competence. Implications of their research findings for counseling psychology training, practice, and research are discussed.

Religious and Spiritual Issues in Counseling Psychology Training

To explore the kind of training counseling psychology programs provide with respect to religious and spiritual issues, surveys were distributed to training directors or designated representatives of 69 counseling psychology programs in the United States. Responses were received from 40, or 58%, of the programs. Results indicated that programs offered relatively little in the way of formal course work in religious or spiritual issues. In addition, participants indicated that in their programs (a) religion and spirituality were often but not always considered a diversity issue; (b) knowledge about religious and spiritual traditions was not generally seen as important to the expertise of faculty members, practicum supervisors, and therapists; (c) religious and spiritual issues received variable attention in didactic and practicum training; and (d) there was considerable openness to research on religious and spiritual topics. Results are discussed in terms of their relevance to counseling psychology practice, research, and professional identity.