Cooking Oil Research Articles

The utilization of waste cooking oil from rice bran and fish byproducts including their wastes can contribute to mitigate the environmental burden like global warming what already being faced by our society. Converting waste oils /fat bearing materials to biodiesel fuel for recycling and reusing material, and reducing Co2 emission equivalent to the amount that is produced when petroleum derived diesel fuel is used. Waste cooking oil ( rice bran oil) and fish oil have emerged as the most promising sources for biodiesel production. This study was investigated to understand the proper transesterification, amount of biodiesel production (ester) and physical properties of biodiesel. Biodiesel production was higher in rice bran waste oil than in fish byproducts oil. However, crude glycerine was lower in rice bran oil than in fish oil. There was a difference in biodiesel production in different concentrations of methanol and catalyst used in rice bran and fish oil from byproducts. These results indicate that high quality biodiesel can be produced from waste rice bran and fish byproducts oil as environmental recycling process.

This research work presents a techno-economic assessment of biodiesel production with non-standard waste cooking oil (WCO) (brown grease of small restaurants, yellow grease of households) and semi-open Chlorella sp. microalgal cultivation, which covers the problematic areas of scale and cost-efficiency in sustainable biodiesel production. Cost-effective biodiesel feedstock research has been motivated by the urgency of finding sustainable sources of energy. With base-catalyzed transesterification optimized by ANOVA and response surface methodology (RSM), the present study recorded biodiesel yields of up to 99.08% in household WCO (at optimum conditions; 55 °C, 3.3 mg/g NaOH, ethanol) and 96.61% in restaurant WCO (at optimum conditions; 54 °C, 1.5 mg/g NaOH, methanol) compared to 28.6% in Chlorella sp. (semi-open photobioreactors). Concerning the two types of WCO feedstocks, the obtained equations are able to compute the biodiesel viscosity and yield, in good correlation with the experimental values, in relation to the temperature and ratio of catalyst to oil/alcohol solution. The assessed household WCO has better yield and quality as it contains fewer impurities, whereas the restaurant WCO needed to be further purified, driving up the prices. Although Chlorella biodiesel is carbon neutral, its production and extraction costs are higher, making it less economically feasible for biodiesel production. Economic analysis showed that the capital costs of household WCO, restaurant WCO, and Chlorella sp. are USD 190,000, USD 220,000, and USD 720,000, respectively, based on 1,000,000 L/year as biodiesel production rate. Low capital costs as well as byproduct glycerol income of the two investigated types of WCO play a role in their low payback periods (0.23–0.91 years) and high ROI (110–444.4%). The analysis highlights the economic and environmental benefits of WCO, especially household WCO, as a scalable biodiesel feedstock, which provides new insights into process optimization and sustainable biodiesel strategies. To enhance its sustainability and cost-effectiveness and contribute to the transition to renewable biofuels globally, future studies need to emphasize energy reduction in microalgae production and purification of restaurant WCO.

ABSTRACT The adhesion performance of waste cooking oil (WCO) – based polyurethane adhesives (Bio-PUA) in plywood was investigated. The WCO-based polyol was formulated at four different formulations of WCO and polyol, namely 1:4, 2:3, 3:2, and 4:1. The bond-line characteristics were analyzed using digital microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. At the same time, the physical and mechanical properties of the plywood were assessed in accordance with JAS No. 233:2003 standards. The fracture lines were filled with adhesive, and this was more pronounced in Bio-PUA with a low WCO content. Bubbles were observed in the bond line of untreated Bio-PUA, and the vessels in all samples were partially filled with adhesive. A strong peak in the Raman spectra at 1610 cm−1 confirmed effective urethane bond formation within both the bond line and the vessels. Quantitatively, Bio-PUA with lower WCO content achieved thicker bond lines but did not facilitate deep adhesive penetration. Adhesive distribution has a significant influence on plywood density and mechanical performance. Increased bond-line thickness improved panel density, while excessive penetration may reduce density without enhancing strength. Tensile shear strength in untreated Bio-PUA correlated strongly with both thickness (positive) and penetration depth (negative), whereas heat-treated Bio-PUA showed more consistent performance with no significant correlations.

Efficient hydrodeoxygenation of used cooking oil using molybdenum phosphide on silica supports for sustainable green fuel production

Harnessing sustainable catalysis: Photocatalytic transesterification of waste cooking oil into biodiesel using kaolin/g-C₃N₄/ZnO heterostructures

Hydrogenation: A novel fuel processing technology for efficient heating with kerosene and waste cooking oil fuel blends

Co-pyrolysis of waste cooking oil and polypropylene: A route to improved biofuel from mixed waste streams

Valorization of waste cooking oil: Emerging strategies for bio-based product development

Conversion of volcano mud and marble waste to Ni/Ca/ZSM-5 catalyst for bio-jet fuel production from waste cooking oil and the effect of Ni loading

Diversifying energy through alternative sources, such as biofuels, is a practical and accessible option in Indonesia. This study aimed to optimize the yield of biofuel (green diesel) using Ni/marble waste as a catalyst. Deoxygenation offers a promising route for converting waste cooking oil (WCO) into valuable products. A Box–Behnken Design (BBD) was applied to assess the effects of key variables on the deoxygenation process using Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The variables included reaction time (2–6 h), reaction temperature (360–380 °C), and catalyst weight (1–3% w/w), with conversion percentage as the response. The results showed that reaction time and catalyst weight significantly influenced WCO deoxygenation (p < 0.05). The optimum conditions for maximum conversion were a reaction temperature of 373.64 °C, a catalyst weight of 3.45% w/w, and a reaction time of 4.35 h. Under these conditions, hydrocarbon selectivity reached 92.26%. Paraffins were the dominant fraction, confirming that the Ni/marble catalyst efficiently promoted deoxygenation with high selectivity toward C15–C18 hydrocarbons. These findings align with the proposed reaction mechanism, which involves decarboxylation, decarbonylation, and hydrodeoxygenation pathways. An economic evaluation under optimal conditions estimated a profit of $1.0469 per batch, demonstrating that converting waste cooking oil into green diesel is both technically feasible and economically attractive. Overall, integrating waste-derived catalysts with optimized deoxygenation technology provides a sustainable and profitable solution.

ANN-ACO optimized biolubricant production from sewage sludge and waste cooking Oil: Dual waste valorisation for high-performance sustainable lubricants

The increasing generation of domestic waste poses significant environmental challenges, particularly in the context of disposal and resource utilization. This review critically evaluates the potential application of selected household waste materials-waste cooking oil (WCO), eggshell powder (ESP), waste plastics (WP), and waste glass (WG)-as functional additives in the bituminous binder and mixture. The study explores their roles as rejuvenators, modifiers, fillers, and partial replacements for coarse and fine aggregates. Findings indicate that WCO, when used in concentrations of 1-4%, effectively rejuvenates aged binders by enhancing workability and reducing stiffness. Incorporation of 5% ESP improves binder stiffness and resistance to thermal-induced deformations. Bitumen modified with 0.25% LDPE, 2% HDPE, and 1% PP when used in combination displays significantly enhanced adhesion and elasticity. Additionally, substituting aggregates with WG up to 10-15% demonstrates improvements in strength and durability without compromising mix integrity. The review further discusses the challenges associated with integrating these materials in road construction. The comparative analysis confirms that these waste-derived modifiers can partially or wholly replace conventional materials, contributing to both enhanced pavement performance and sustainable infrastructure development.

Environmental pollution due to used cooking oil waste and the use of synthetic chemical detergents are serious problems that require innovative solutions. This research aims to develop an environmentally friendly detergent based on used cooking oil as an alternative to conventional detergents. The research method uses a qualitative-descriptive approach with stages of pretreatment of used cooking oil, esterification, transesterification, sulfonation to produce Methyl Ester Sulfonate surfactant, and blending with additives. The results of the study show that JelaWash Detergent products have advantages in removing stains, are biodegradable, produce a long-lasting, gentle scent on clothes and skin. Market analysis of 32 respondents indicated positive acceptance with a preference for liquid detergents of 78 percent. The production capacity is designed to be 50,000 tons per year to meet the gap in Indonesia's detergent needs. The conclusion of the study shows that the use of used cooking oil as a detergent raw material can reduce environmental waste while producing high-quality cleaning products that are economical and sustainable.

Biodiesel is a renewable fuel with great potential to support energy transition in Indonesia. This research aims to analyze the impact of the policy of developing biodiesel on CPO prices. Time series and secondary data from January 2015 to December 2023 were used in this research with the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) method. The dependent variable was the domestic CPO prices and the independent variable were the price of CPO in the international market, biodiesel production volume, exports of CPO and its processed products, price of palm cooking oil, export levies, export duties, CPO production volume, and the Rupiah exchange rate against the United States Dollar. The results in the short run was the domestic CPO prices were influenced positively and significantly by the volume of biodiesel production, the export volume of CPO and its processed products, and the price of palm cooking oil. In the long run, domestic CPO prices were significantly and positively influenced by international CPO prices and palm cooking oil prices. At the same time, export levy, CPO production volume, and the Rupiah exchange rate are significantly and negatively influenced. These results indicate that biodiesel production impacts the prices of biodiesel raw materials and cooking oil in the short run.

The rising global population and the environmental impact of fossil-fuel dependency have intensified the need for cleaner and renewable energy alternatives. Biodiesel, among biofuels, has gained significant attention as a key contender due to its sustainability and compatibility with existing energy infrastructure. Researchers worldwide are continuously exploring cost-effective, scalable, and sustainable production methods to meet this growing energy need. Waste cooking oil (WCO) and other feedstocks are commonly used for biodiesel production due to their economic advantages and waste reduction potential. To overcome these hurdles, a two-step transesterification or hybrid approach has been adopted for commercial-scale biodiesel production, offering an efficient and environmentally friendly solution for the biofuel industry. In this review, emergence of biocatalysts and hybrid catalytic approaches has been investigated as revolutionary solutions in sustainable biodiesel synthesis. Additionally, economic feasibility, industrial challenges, and potential breakthroughs have been discussed that can drive biodiesel production toward a more sustainable and commercially viable future. By embracing these green innovations, the biofuel industry moves closer to an era of clean, efficient, and cost-effective energy solutions. This study advances sustainable biodiesel production through innovative catalytic approaches, supporting clean energy (sustainable development goal (SDG) 7), waste valorization (SDG 12), and climate action (SDG 13).

ABSTRACT In this study, waste cooking oil was subjected to heterogeneous transesterification using a graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) nanocatalyst, with the primary aim of developing a sustainable and cost-effective catalytic system for biodiesel production. The catalyst was synthesized by annealing urea at 500°C for 4 h and characterized using X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. For biodiesel synthesis, WCO was initially esterified to reduce free fatty acids, followed by transesterification using the g-C3N4 under various reaction conditions. The Box–Behnken Design coupled with Response Surface Methodology was employed to optimize the critical transesterification parameters, including catalyst concentration, reaction temperature, and reaction time. The developed model demonstrated a high R 2 value (0.9998), indicating excellent precision and minimal prediction error, thereby confirming its robustness. Under optimized conditions (catalyst dosage = 1.75 wt.%, reaction temperature = 60°C, and reaction time 70 min), a maximum fatty acid methyl ester yield of 89.16% was achieved. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and FTIR confirmed the successful conversion of triglycerides into FAME. Physicochemical properties of the biodiesel met the American Society for Testing and Materials standards, validating its suitability as a renewable fuel. The key finding of this study is that the g-C3N4 exhibits excellent catalytic activity with relatively low catalyst loading, thereby offering a promising alternative to conventional catalysts. Future research is necessary to examine the long-term stability, reusability of the catalyst, assess large-scale viability, and conduct thorough life-cycle and techno-economic evaluations to determine its sustainability in commercial biodiesel production.

Abstract The primary objective of the study was to develop a green and cost‐effective catalyst from an agricultural bio resource and to optimize the transesterification process for enhanced biodiesel yield. To achieve this, calcium oxide (CaO) was synthesized from curry leaf (Murraya koenigii) extract and employed as a heterogeneous catalyst in the transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO). X‐ray diffraction confirmed the crystalline nature of the synthesized catalyst and the average crystalline size is 48 nm. Optimization of the transesterification process was carried out using Box–Behnken design–response surface methodology (BBD–RSM). Key process parameters, including catalyst dosage (wt%), temperature (°C), oil‐to‐methanol molar ratio, and reaction time (minutes), were optimized to achieve maximum biodiesel yield. A maximum yield of 91.22% was obtained under the optimized conditions: 4 wt% catalyst, 60 °C, a 1:6 oil‐to‐methanol molar ratio, and 120 min of reaction time. FTIR (Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy) analysis of the biodiesel showed characteristic peaks indicative of biodiesel, while GC–MS (gas chromatography–mass spectrometry) analysis confirmed the presence of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs). These results confirm that CaO synthesized via a green synthesis route using curry leaves can serve as a viable catalyst for the sustainable production of biodiesel.

The valorization of waste materials is essential for sustainability, with used cooking oils (UCOs) offering potential for transformation into valuable functional products. The study investigates the oxidative stability of sunflower and olive oils subjected to high temperatures (160–200 °C) and frying on their physico-chemical properties (acidity, peroxide and iodine value, total polar compounds). Significant deterioration occurred above 180 °C, with increased peroxide and polar compounds and reduced iodine values. A technological process for the purification and saponification of UCOs (sunflower, olive, and palm oils) was developed, demonstrating the potential to transform pollutant waste into a valuable and sustainable product—soap. The incorporation of oregano and thyme essential oils (EOs), identified by GC-FID as rich sources of carvacrol, thymol, p-cymene, and limonene, improved the functional properties of the soaps. The antimicrobial activity of soaps largely relates to their alkaline pH, while the incorporation of EOs contributes to additional antimicrobial effects, obtaining zones of inhibition of up to 10.8 mm against Staphylococcus aureus and up to 7.6 mm against Escherichia coli for palm oil. The study highlights a sustainable approach that transforms waste oils into functional soaps with EOs for added antimicrobial benefits.

Over the last decade, there has been a significant growth in life cycle assessment (LCA) research on oil palm production around the world, with an emphasis on the stages of the life cycle from oil palm plantation to crude palm oil (CPO). However, there is still a research shortage in the downstream section, which includes CPO and cooking oil production. This study addresses the gap by utilizing LCA to evaluate the environmental impacts using recent field data collected from selected sites in Sumatra. The study aims to examine the environmental impacts associated with the quality of palm cooking oil and compare them with those of other vegetable cooking oils. The system boundary is defined as cradle-to-gate, comprising land preparation, plantation, CPO production, and refinery of cooking oil. The results indicate that higher-quality palm cooking oil with iodine value (IV) 60 is associated with increased environmental impacts across several categories, including global warming, eutrophication, acidification, ozone layer depletion, and marine ecotoxicity. Furthermore, palm cooking oil with IV 56, which represents the most often consumed quality level, has a lower carbon footprint than cooking oils made from rapeseed, sunflower, soybean, peanut, canola, coconut, and maize. These findings provide useful information for consumers, industry, and politicians seeking to reduce the environmental effects of vegetable cooking oil.

This study was conducted to examine the polarity and electrolyte properties of several types of imported fruit that are increasingly consumed by the Indonesian people after the Covid-19 pandemic. The method used was a laboratory experiment conducted using three types of polar-nonpolar solvents and a simple multimeter-based electrolyte circuit to measure conductivity by testing extracts of ten imported fruits (melon, dragon fruit, strawberry, kiwi, pomegranate, grapes, cherries, lemon peel, blueberries, and dates). The polarity test was carried out using three different solvents (water, vinegar, and cooking oil), while the electrolyte properties were observed with a simple electrical circuit. The results showed that most of the extracts were soluble in water and vinegar, but not in cooking oil, so the majority of the fruit components were polar. Lemon peel and melon peel have semi-polar properties due to their essential oil content. In the electrolyte test, fruits with high acid content (lemon, pomegranate, strawberry) act as strong electrolytes, while fruits with high sugar content (dates, melon) are only classified as weak electrolytes. Other fruits such as grapes, kiwi, and blueberries show moderate electrolyte properties. These findings support basic chemical concepts regarding the relationship between polarity, solubility, and electrical conductivity, and can be utilized in teaching and food technology applications.