Conventional Irrigation Research Articles (Page 1)

The Hetao Irrigation District in Inner Mongolia is a major spring wheat production region in China. To synergize high wheat yield, water conservation, and carbon emission reduction in this region, a 2023 and 2024 field experiment was conducted. This study systematically analyzed the effects of organic fertilizer substitution for chemical nitrogen (T1:0%, T2:25%, T3:50%, T4:75%, T5:100%) on soil carbon emissions dynamics and carbon footprint of wheat fields, under two irrigation regimes: water-saving irrigation (twice at jointing and heading stages, 2W) and conventional irrigation (four times at tillering, jointing, heading, and grain-filling stages, 4W). The results showed that during the wheat-growing season, soil CO2 emission rate exhibited a single-peak trend (peak at flowering stage), while cumulative soil CO2 emission showed a “decrease-increase-decrease” pattern (peak at jointing to heading). At different growth stages, both CO2 emission and its rate increased with higher organic fertilizer substitution ratios, and were higher under 4W than 2W. Irrigation and substitution treatments significantly affected the total carbon emissions, carbon sequestration, and carbon footprint: total emissions increased with substitution ratios, while sequestration and footprint first increased then decreased; all three indices were higher under 4W than 2W. Regression analysis revealed that maximum net carbon budget was achieved at 21.6–31.7% substitution (1402.3–1879.9 kg ha−1) under 2W, and 31.0–33.8% substitution (2295.5–2822.0 kg ha−1) under 4W. In conclusion, water-saving irrigation (900 m3 ha−1 per application at jointing and heading stages) combined with an optimal organic-nitrogen ratio (1008.0 kg ha−1 organic fertilizer, 193.1 kg ha−1 chemical nitrogen) effectively coordinates water conservation and carbon emission reduction. This study provides a basis for synergizing these goals in Hetao’s wheat production.

Advanced irrigation techniques, such as the XP-endo Finisher file and sonic EDDY system, have been introduced to overcome the limitations of conventional needle irrigation by enhancing irrigant penetration and disinfection. However, their influence on post-operative pain remains under investigation. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of these techniques on post-operative pain following single-visit root canal treatment. Thirty patients requiring endodontic treatment for asymptomatic vital maxillary central incisors or canines were enrolled. All procedures were performed in a single visit using the ProTaper Universal rotary system. Irrigation was carried out with 2.5% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). Participants were randomly assigned into three equal groups based on the final irrigation protocol: Group I – conventional needle irrigation (control), Group II – XP-endo Finisher file, and Group III – sonic EDDY activation. Post-operative pain was assessed using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) at 8, 24, and 48 h, and at 1 and 2 weeks. Data were statistically analyzed with significance set at P ≤ 0.05. Pain scores significantly decreased overtime in all groups. While between-group differences were not statistically significant, within-group reductions were significant. Group II exhibited the lowest pain levels, followed by Group III, while Group I reported the highest. Additionally, female participants had significantly higher odds of reporting pain. The XP-endo Finisher and sonic EDDY systems resulted in better pain reduction over time than conventional needle irrigation, with XP-endo Finisher being most effective.Clinical relevance: Advanced irrigation systems may enhance patient comfort and compliance by reducing post-operative pain after endodontic therapy.Clinical trial registration: The study protocol was registered on https://beta.clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT05450003 on (08/07/2022).

The cultivation of Salvia miltiorrhiza in arid regions is challenged by limited water availability and suboptimal soil aeration, which constrain nitrogen uptake and the accumulation of secondary metabolites. This study evaluated the integrated effects of magnetized and aerated irrigation on mitigating these constraints. Results indicated that the combined magnetized and aerated irrigation treatment demonstrated remarkable efficacy, achieving a 25.2% increase in soil nitrate nitrogen availability and 36.1% enhancement in root dry matter weight. Crucially, this optimized rhizosphere environment preferentially boosted the biosynthesis of salvianolic acid B and key tanshinones (T. IIA, Cryptotanshinone, T. I), with content increases exceeding 22% compared to conventional irrigation, representing substantial improvements in the herb’s therapeutic value. Water terminal magnetization proved superior to water source positioning, while aerated irrigation enhanced soil nitrification more effectively than magnetization alone. By concurrently improving rhizosphere oxygenation and creating favorable conditions for nutrient uptake, this strategy offers a sustainable approach for improving the quality and biomass of Salvia miltiorrhiza in water-limited environments.

Water scarcity critically constrains wheat production in North China, yet the irrigation responsiveness of novel glutinous wheat cultivars remains poorly quantified. This study systematically investigated the physiological mechanisms of common wheat Shimai 19 (SM19), partially glutinous SM19-P (Wx-B1 null), and fully glutinous SM19-N (triple null) under three irrigation regimes: rain-fed (W0), water-saving (W1: jointing irrigation), and conventional irrigation (W2: overwintering + jointing + flowering irrigations). Dynamic monitoring of flag leaf photosynthesis (Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAD), stomatal conductance (Gs), transpiration rate (Tr), net photosynthetic rate (Pn)), antioxidant enzyme systems (superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT) net photosynthetic rate (Pn), malondialdehyde (MDA)), grain starch synthase activities (granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS), soluble starch synthase (SSS), adenosine diphosphate glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase), starch branching enzyme (SBE)), and yield components revealed that: (1) SM19 achieved maximum photosynthetic capacity under W1 (Pn increased by 59.54% vs. W0 at 21 days post anthesis (DPA), p < 0.05) with optimal oxidative damage resistance (MDA reduced by 78.73% at 0 DPA), whereas SM19-P and SM19-N required W2 to reach photosynthetic peaks (Pn increased by 60.56% in SM19-P) and enzyme activity maxima (CAT increased by 66.67% in SM19-N). (2) Starch synthase activities peaked under water deficit (W0) early in grain-filling (≤14 DPA) but became tightly coupled to irrigation frequency thereafter. This was supported by a highly significant correlation between irrigation and final yield (r = 0.803, p < 0.01). The coordinated upregulation of AGPase and SSS (r = 0.726, p < 0.01) underpinned this response. The superior branched-starch accumulation in genotype SM19-N (+23%) was linked to its markedly higher SBE activity (r = 0.867, p < 0.01). (3) Yield optimization was genotype-specific: SM19 yielded highest under W1, while SM19-N peaked under W2. The study demonstrates that, unlike common wheat (SM19) which performs optimally under water-saving irrigation, the novel glutinous lines (SM19-P/SM19-N) require full irrigation to realize their yield potential, highlighting a critical trade-off between starch quality and drought adaptation. The key indicators identified—photosynthetic efficiency, antioxidant capacity, and starch metabolism—provide a theoretical foundation for developing future glutinous wheat varieties combining drought tolerance with high starch quality.

BackgroundsThe aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of supplementary techniques, including conventional needle irrigation (CNI), EDDY (ED), EndoActivator (EA), passive ultrasonic irrigation (PUI), and XP-Endo Finisher R (XP-FR), in removing residual filling materials from oval-shaped root canals during non-surgical endodontic retreatment.MethodsSixty human mandibular premolar teeth were initially prepared using an R25 instrument and filled with gutta-percha points and Bioserra sealer. The initial filling material removal was performed with PTUR D1 (30/0.09) and D2 (25/0.08) files, and the root canals were finally shaped with an R40 instrument. The samples were randomly divided into 5 groups (n = 12) according to the irrigation activation techniques. Residual filling materials in the apical, middle, and coronal thirds were examined using a scanning electron microscope. Statistical analyses were performed using Kruskal-Wallis tests, with a significance level set at p < 0.05.ResultsIn the ED and XP-FR groups, residue scores decreased from apical to coronal (p < 0.05). ED, PUI, and XP-FR showed significantly lower residue scores in all root thirds compared to CNI (p < 0.05) and in the middle third compared to EA (p < 0.05). EA showed lower scores only in the coronal third compared to the CNI group (p < 0.05).ConclusionED, PUI, and XP-FR did not show statistically significant differences, all activation techniques demonstrated better efficacy than the EA and CNI.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12903-025-06877-4.

Primary endodontic treatment and retreatment involves a number of stages and materials which are all crucial for the final result. Irrigation and the reduction of the microbial count in the root canal system represent a critical phase of the treatment process, contributing significantly to the overall success of the procedure. It was found that conventional methods and irrigants do not show satisfactory results. For this reason, different lasers are entering endodontics to combine with traditionally accepted materials.

Sewage effluent (SE) is increasingly being recognized as a sustainable water resource, particularly in regions facing freshwater scarcity. SE is rich in macronutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), which enhance soil fertility and crop productivity. However, it also contains contaminants, including heavy metals, organic pollutants, and pathogenic microorganisms, that can adversely affect plant biochemical processes, soil health, and crop quality. To mitigate these risks, effective management strategies such as filtration, dilution, and biological treatment can reduce toxicity and improve its suitability for agricultural use. This study investigates the optimal dilution of SE for cultivating different canola varieties (CON III, AARI Canola, Punjab Canola, and Faisal Canola) under controlled conditions. The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design with four replications, comparing SE and tap water treatments. Results revealed that Punjab Canola exhibited the highest performance under SE treatment, with significant increases in shoot length (51.99%), shoot dry weight (66.96%), leaf number per plant (47.55%), flowering branches per plant (55.34%), and seed oil content (9.87%) compared to the control. Photosynthetic pigments, including chlorophyll a (59.80%), chlorophyll b (39.28%), and total chlorophyll (56.38%), were also markedly enhanced in Punjab Canola under SE application. Additionally, improved concentrations of N, P, and K in roots and shoots demonstrated the effectiveness of SE in promoting nutrient uptake across the tested varieties. These findings suggest that diluted SE can serve as an effective and sustainable alternative to conventional irrigation, significantly enhancing canola growth and productivity while addressing the water scarcity challenge.

Precise application of nutrients and water in groundnut ensures optimal plant growth, enhances yield and quality and minimizes resource wastage. It promotes sustainable farming by improving nutrient use efficiency and saving water. Field experiments were conducted at two locations. This study addresses the need for efficient water and nutrient management in groundnut by evaluating the effects of automated drip irrigation and a low-cost smart drip fertigation system on its growth, physiology, root traits and yield. Location I was a farmer's field at Kanjipatti village of Kalaiyarkoil block, Sivagangai district (rabi 2023) and Location II was the central farm, Agricultural College and Research Institute in Madurai district (summer 2024) of Tamil Nadu. Field trials were laid out in split plot design with three replications. The main plot treatments consisted of three drip irrigation mrthods, namely; conventional drip irrigation (M1), time based automated drip irrigation (M2) and sensor based automated drip irrigation (M3); where as five drip fertigation treatments, viz., fertigation of 75% Recommended Dose of Fertilizers (RDF) (F1), fertigation of 100% RDF (F2), Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) based drip fertigation (F3), sensor based fertigation at 75% NPK level (F4), and sensor based fertigation at 100% NPK level (F5) were imposed in the sub plot. Significantly higher growth (plant height), physiological parameters (Crop Growth Rate [CGR], Leaf Area Index [LAI], Relative Water Content [RWC], Dry Matter Production [DMP], leaf temperature, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index [NDVI] and SPAD meter value), root characteristics (number of nodules, root length, volume, and dry weight) and ultimately yield (pod and haulm yield) of groundnut were recorded under sensor-based automated drip irrigation combined with sensor-based fertigation at 100% NPK level (M3F5). Sensor-based automated drip irrigation combined with sensor-based fertigation at 100% NPK level (M3F5) recorded 43.74% and 45.25% higher pod yield compared to conventional drip irrigation with fertigation at 75% RDF in both seasons, respectively. Practicing sensor-based automated drip fertigation in groundnut not only enhanced the yield but also reduced the input requirements, saving 7%−12% of water and 15%−25% of fertilizers in groundnut production.

Introduction: In endodontic treatment, debridement is crucial for removing microbiota, byproducts, pulp tissue, and organic/inorganic debris. Root canal irrigation complements mechanical instrumentation, ensuring that the root canal system is thoroughly disinfected and the smear layer is removed. This is crucial for eliminating microorganisms, dissolving organic debris, and improving disinfection. Objective: The aim was to conduct a systematic review to describe and compare the various methods of root canal irrigation through clinical studies, with the goal of establishing the optimal cleaning and disinfection treatment protocol. Methods: The PRISMA Platform systematic review rules were followed. The search was carried out from July to August 2025 in the Scopus, Embase, PubMed, Science Direct, Scielo, and Google Scholar databases. The quality of the studies was based on the GRADE instrument, and the risk of bias was analyzed according to the Cochrane instrument. Results and Conclusion: A total of 175 articles were found, and 40 articles were evaluated in full, and 30 were included and developed in the present systematic review study. Considering the Cochrane tool for risk of bias, the overall assessment resulted in 30 studies with a high risk of bias and 25 that did not meet the GRADE and AMSTAR-2 criteria. According to the GRADE instrument, most studies presented homogeneity in their results, with X2=91.2%&gt;50%. It was concluded that irrigation plays a fundamental role in the success of endodontic treatment. Although hypochlorite is the most important irrigating solution, no irrigator can perform all the tasks required by irrigation. A detailed understanding of the mode of action of various solutions is important for optimal irrigation. Within the limitations of this study, the use of the self-adjusting filing system with the combination of EDTA and NaOCl improved the removal of Ca(OH)2. Passive ultrasonic irrigation and self-adjusting filing system were more effective in removing Ca(OH)2 from the lateral grooves in the apical parts of the root canal than EndoVac and conventional syringe irrigation systems.

Oral biofilms contribute to apical periodontitis, a major cause of tooth loss. This study evaluated the potential of an on-demand aqueous chlorine dioxide solution, “matching transformation system” (MA-T), as a safer alternative to conventional root canal irrigants. The antibacterial activity of MA-T was assessed against mono-species biofilms (Enterococcus faecalis, Parvimonas micra, Fusobacterium nucleatum), polymicrobial biofilms derived from human supragingival plaque, and an in vitro infected root canal model using E. faecalis. Antibacterial efficacy was evaluated using viable cell counting and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) to quantify the reduction in bacterial load. Biofilm mass was assessed by crystal violet (CV) staining. Cytotoxicity was evaluated by treating rat osteoblasts and human periodontal ligament fibroblasts with MA-T or NaOCl, followed by assessment of ATP levels and morphological integrity. MA-T eradicated planktonic bacteria, inhibited biofilm formation, and significantly reduced viable bacteria in established biofilms without affecting the total amount of biofilm biomass time-dependently. The infected root canal model showed a substantial decrease in bacterial load. Compared with NaOCl, MA-T-treated cells retained higher ATP levels and normal morphology. MA-T could be a promising root canal irrigant offering effective disinfection and superior biocompatibility, making it a potential alternative to traditional root canal irrigants as NaOCl.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-20131-5.

This study evaluated apical debris extrusion caused by passive ultrasonic irrigation (PUI), sonic activation (SA) and conventional irrigation (CI) in combination with different file systems. A total of 135 extracted human mandibular premolar teeth were used. The samples were divided into nine groups (n = 15) based on three main irrigation activation techniques and three subgroups of file systems. After preparing the experimental setups and completing the root canal shaping procedures with XP-endo Rise Shaper, ProTaper Ultimate, and WaveOne Gold files, irrigation activation was performed in each group. Distilled water was used as the irrigation solution. Eppendorf tubes containing distilled water and debris were incubated at 37°C for 14days. The tubes were then weighed three times using a precision scale, and the mean of the measurements was calculated. The mean pre-recorded empty tube weights were subtracted from the final mean weights to determine the weight of the apically extruded debris. Among the irrigation activation methods, PUI resulted in the greatest amount of debris extrusion (p = 0.003). All file systems caused apical debris extrusion; however, there was no statistically significant difference among the file systems regarding debris extrusion (p > 0.05). When the combinations of file systems with irrigation activation methods were compared, the combination of the WaveOne Gold with SA resulted in significantly less debris extrusion (p = 0.009). PUI caused significantly more apical debris extrusion compared with SA and CI. The combined use of WaveOne Gold and SA during root canal treatments may serve as an option to reduce postoperative pain and acute flare-ups. XP-endo Rise Shaper; ProTaper Ultimate; WaveOne Gold; Debris Extrusion; Irrigation Activation.

The success of endodontic treatment relies on the cleaning, disinfection, and sealing of the root canal system. This study evaluated the effects of four different irrigation techniques on smear layer removal, dentinal tubule penetration, and interfacial adaptation of a bioceramic root canal sealer. Eighty-four sound single-rooted lower premolars were decoronated, prepared to medium size WaveOne Gold reciprocating files, and divided randomly into four groups: group I conventional needle irrigation, group II heat activation, group III Diode laser activation, and group IV XP-endo Finisher file activation. Half of the samples (n = 40) were used to assess smear layer removal, while the other forty-four teeth were used to measure the sealer's penetration and interfacial adaptation after obturation with Bio_C sealer and gutta-percha; the assessments were done using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM). No statistically significant differences were found between irrigation activation groups related to smear layer removal assessment (p-value>0.05), while the XP-endo Finisher file activation group showed significantly the highest sealer penetration in the apical third, and the best adaptation in the middle third. Irrigation activation can enhance the penetration of the sealer and interfacial adaptation.

This study explores innovative passive ultrasonic irrigation (PUI) parameters by investigating a novel, shorter, and more repetitive agitation cycle to enhance the penetration depth of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) within dentinal tubules. Forty extracted human mandibular premolars were prepared (size 40, 0.06 taper) and stained with 0.5% crystal violet. Samples were divided into four irrigation groups: (I) Conventional Needle Irrigation (CNI), (II) PUI with 2 cycles of 30 s each, (III) PUI with 3 cycles of 20 s each, and (IV) PUI with 6 cycles of 10 s each. Coronal, middle, and apical sections were analyzed by light microscopy, and NaOCl penetration depth was measured at four sites (mesial, distal, buccal, lingual) using ImageJ. Data were analyzed using Kruskal-Wallis/Dunn’s test (α < 0.05). The CNI group demonstrated significantly lower NaOCl penetration compared to all PUI groups (P < 0.001). The 6 × 10 s protocol achieved significantly greater penetration in all regions (P < 0.001). While no significant differences were observed between the 2 × 30 s and 3 × 20 s protocols in the coronal and middle thirds, the 3 × 20 s group showed significantly greater penetration in the apical third (P < 0.001). The findings of this study suggest that optimizing PUI agitation parameters can lead to more effective, efficient, and predictable endodontic treatment, enhancing irrigation efficacy. Shorter and more frequent cycles (6 × 10 s) proved to be the most effective, providing valuable information for clinical practice.

BackgroundThe success of endodontic treatment relies on the cleaning, disinfection, and sealing of the root canal system. This study evaluated the effects of four different irrigation techniques on smear layer removal, dentinal tubule penetration, and interfacial adaptation of a bioceramic root canal sealer.MethodEighty-four sound single-rooted lower premolars were decoronated, prepared to medium size WaveOne Gold reciprocating files, and divided randomly into four groups: group I conventional needle irrigation, group II heat activation, group III Diode laser activation, and group IV XP-endo Finisher file activation. Half of the samples (n = 40) were used to assess smear layer removal, while the other forty-four teeth were used to measure the sealer’s penetration and interfacial adaptation after obturation with Bio_C sealer and gutta-percha; the assessments were done using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM).ResultsNo statistically significant differences were found between irrigation activation groups related to smear layer removal assessment (p-value>0.05), while the XP-endo Finisher file activation group showed significantly the highest sealer penetration in the apical third, and the best adaptation in the middle third.ConclusionIrrigation activation can enhance the penetration of the sealer and interfacial adaptation.

Rooftop gardening has gained popularity as an urban agricultural method in various countries, including India. However, the high temperatures and increased evapotranspiration rates on rooftops require much higher water for crops compared to traditional ground-based farming which leads to a significant challenge in water management. To address these concerns, there is a need for cost-effective and efficient irrigation systems to improve production in urban rooftop gardens. An experiment was conducted at the Academic Building of the College of Agricultural Engineering, Ara, Bihar, from November 2024 to March 2025, to assess the performance of drip irrigation on the growth and yield of Indra Capsicum (Capsicum annuum L.). The study was designed using a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with six replications, and significant differences were observed across various treatment methods. The results showed that the drip irrigation system led to higher plant growth, including increased plant height, more leaves, flowers, and average fruits per plant (21.3), as well as improved fruit length (67.2 mm), fruit weight (79.81g), and overall yield per plant (3.52 kg/plant). Compared to conventional irrigation methods, drip irrigation saved approximately 75%-80% of water, with a water use efficiency of 9.2 kg/m³. Additionally, the yield of Indra Capsicum was found to increase by 10-15% under drip irrigation, surpassing the potential yield observed with traditional methods. Overall, the drip irrigation system proved to be an effective solution for enhancing Capsicum production in rooftop gardens, demonstrating both water conservation and increased yield.

Disinfection of the root canal system is crucial for the effectiveness of root canal treatment. Lasers and photoactivated disinfection (PAD) have emerged as preferred methods for eliminating pathogens from the root canal. Sixty intact, freshly extracted adult human uniradicular mature teeth with a single root canal were collected. The crowns were removed, resulting in canals measuring 14 mm in length. The root canals were prepared, sterilized, and then inoculated with broth containing Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis), followed by incubation for 30 days in an aerobic environment at 37°C. Biofilm formation was verified using a scanning electron microscope. The samples were randomly divided into six experimental groups (n = 10). Group 1 consisted of teeth treated only with distilled water. Group 2 teeth received 3% NaOCl and 17% EDTA as part of Conventional Chemomechanical Debridement (CCMD) but no additional treatment. Groups 3-6 also received CCMD followed by additional laser disinfection as follows: Group 3 underwent photoactivated disinfection (PAD) using riboflavin with a 450 nm laser; Group 4 underwent PAD using toluidine blue O (TBO) with a 635 nm laser; Group 5 underwent conventional laser endodontics (CLE) with an 808 nm laser; and Group 6 underwent CLE using triple wavelengths of 450 nm, 635 nm, and 808 nm. The Kruskal-Wallis test revealed significant differences in colony-forming units (CFUs) among the groups after treatment (p < 0.001). Subsequent analysis showed that the difference in mean CFUs between the PAD groups and the CLE groups was not statistically significant. The group treated with the triple laser wavelength exhibited the lowest average CFUs/mL, while the distilled water group had the highest mean value. The study confirms that diode laser-assisted disinfection significantly enhances bacterial reduction compared with conventional irrigation alone. Although PAD methods reduced E. faecalis, their effect was not statistically superior to conventional laser endodontics (CLE). The triplewavelength diode laser group achieved the greatest bacterial reduction, likely due to the synergistic effects of thermal and photochemical interactions. These findings support the adjunctive use of laser disinfection to improve root canal decontamination, particularly when combined with chemomechanical preparation. This study demonstrates that combining an irrigating solution with a diode laser enhances the effectiveness of reducing pathogenic numbers.

Efficient irrigation management is crucial for optimizing crop development while minimizing resource use. This study aimed to assess the spatial variability of water distribution under conventional sprinkler irrigation, alongside soil moisture and infiltration dynamics, using multispectral sensors onboard Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPAs). The experiment was conducted over a 466.2 m2 area equipped with 65 georeferenced collectors spaced at 3 m intervals. Soil data were collected through volumetric rings (0–5 cm), auger sampling (30–40 cm), and 65 measurements of penetration resistance down to 60 cm. Four RPA flights were performed at 20 min intervals post-irrigation to generate NDVI and NDWI indices. NDWI values decreased from 0.03 to −0.02, indicating surface moisture reduction due to infiltration and evaporation, corroborated by gravimetric moisture decline from 0.194 g/g to 0.191 g/g. Penetration resistance exceeded 2400 kPa at 30 cm depth, while bulk density ranged from 1.30 to 1.50 g/cm3. Geostatistical methods, including Inverse Distance Weighting and Ordinary Kriging, revealed non-uniform water distribution and subsurface compaction zones. The integration of spectral indices within situ measurements proved effective in characterizing irrigation system performance, offering a robust approach for calibration and precision water management.

Farm fresh vegetable production is gaining much importance in urban areas. This is a turning point for agriculture in urban and peri-urban areas, to introduce new technology like Drip Irrigation System (DIS). Nowadays, urban people take due care by cultivating vegetables on their roof–top, because of high pesticide residues in market produce. But, urban farming initiatives lack supervision and guidance in whole cultivation practices especially in irrigation. Here comes the role of low-cost drip irrigation system to solve acute water shortage and labor problem. Keeping in view of the above few facts, a field experiment was conducted on automatic drip irrigation for grow bag cultivation to evaluate yield, water-use- efficiency and economic feasibility of a commonly used vegetable, okra. Comparison was done with the manual hose irrigation for grow bags. A comparative study was conducted to evaluate the performance of time-based automatic drip irrigation system and manual hose irrigation in okra. Irrigation time optimized at 15minutes provided 250 ml of water per plant. Based on the growth stage, crop water requirement of vegetables was estimated to be 0.6 to 2 litre/day. To meet this crop water requirement, irrigation was done at four time intervals viz., morning twice and evening twice in such a manner one litre water was irrigated per grow bag. Thus, drip irrigation conserved 50% water compared to manual hose irrigation. It was found that drip irrigation gave 37.70% higher yield than that obtained with the manual drip irrigation system. Automatic DIS increased irrigation efficiency up to 95% than that of conventional method of irrigation. BCR using automated DIS was observed to be 1.45. Time based Automatic Family Drip System (FDS) is observed to be user-friendly, economical and cost effective as compared to conventional hose irrigation for farming on terraces in cities. Time saving, low energy consumption and low pressure low cost DIS had been widely accepted among urban farmers to promote vegetable cultivation in their own houses.

Northern China is a major potato-producing region, where water scarcity and low fertilizer use efficiency significantly constrain potato production. A field experiment was conducted in Xinjiang, China, in 2023 using the potato cultivar ‘Xisen 6’ to investigate the effects of a novel fulvic acid (FA)-enriched specialized fertilizer on potato growth, photosynthetic characteristics, yield, and water-fertilizer use efficiency under different drip irrigation levels. Three irrigation regimes were applied: conventional irrigation (W1: 4582.5 m3·ha-1), 15% deficit irrigation (W2: 3865.5 m3·ha-1), and 30% deficit irrigation (W3: 3165 m3·ha-1). Five fertilization treatments were implemented: no fertilizer (CK), conventional fertilizer (CF), and three FA-enriched formula fertilizers—F1 (FA: 120 g·L-1, N-P-K = 110-100-120), F2 (FA: 60 g·L-1, N-P-K = 130-120-150), and F3 (FA: 30 g·L-1, N-P-K = 170-150-130). The results indicated that both irrigation (W) and fertilization (F) significantly influenced potato growth, yield, and the efficiency of water and fertilizer use. Under W2 irrigation, the W2F2 treatment achieved optimal performance, with plant height, aboveground dry weight, SPAD, and tuber yield increasing by 56.67%, 71.24%, 21.69%, and 121.29%, respectively, compared to CK. WUE and PFP reached 13.84 kg·m-3 and 100.1 kg·kg-1, respectively, while maintaining a yield of 59.49 t·ha-1 under 15% water-saving conditions. Tuber yield exhibited highly significant positive correlations with plant height, aboveground dry weight, SPAD, net photosynthetic rate, WUE, and PFP. Principal component analysis based on growth, yield, and resource use efficiency identified W2F2 as the highest-ranked treatment. In conclusion, for ‘Xisen 6’ cultivation in Northwest China, applying formula fertilizer F2 (FA: 60 g·L-1, N-P-K = 130-120-150) under a drip irrigation rate of 3865.5 m3·ha-1 significantly enhances plant growth, yield, and water use efficiency, providing a sustainable strategy for optimizing potato production.

Frequency and Performance Analysis of Polymer, Steel, and Titanium Ultrasonic Inserts in Intracanal Medication Removal.