Purpose Following self-consistency theory, this study aims to explore the implications of underdog expectations for hospitality employees’ service performance, considering self-esteem (SE) threat as a mediator and others’ approval of contingent self-esteem (OACSE) as a moderator. Design/methodology/approach Hypotheses were verified using three-wave and dual-source data from 206 dyads of hospitality employees and their immediate supervisors in nine hotels in Eastern China. Multiple regression analysis and bootstrapping were performed in SPSS 23.0 to test the hypotheses, while AMOS 21.0 was used for preliminary analyses. Findings Underdog expectations adversely affected hospitality employees’ service performance by threatening their SE, with these effects being more pronounced when employees OACSE was high as opposed to low. Practical implications Hospitality organizations should build a workplace atmosphere recognizing and appreciating employees and implement training programs or workshops focused on building employee self-confidence so as to lessen the adverse effect of underdog expectations on service performance. Originality/value This research applies self-consistency theory as a novel theoretical perspective in the study of underdog expectations, proposing SE threat as a new mediating mechanism and OACSE as a novel moderator to explain how and when underdog expectations affect hospitality employees’ service performance, thereby offering fresh theoretical insights into the field.

Contingent self-esteem, or the notion that self-worth is tied to successes or failures, is theorized to be important to narcissism. Contingent self-esteem likely manifests as a dynamic between transient states (e.g., emotions) and feelings of self-worth. The current study examined whether narcissism was associated with the link between negative affect and self-esteem. Participants (N = 862) came from two samples of undergraduates and one of community individuals. Participants completed trait-based assessments of narcissism and an ecological momentary assessment protocol capturing state-level negative affect and self-esteem. Grandiosity was associated with higher average momentary self-esteem (β = .12). Vulnerability and contingent self-esteem were associated with higher momentary averages of negative affect (βs = .23; 20, respectively) and lower momentary averages of self-esteem (βs = -.37; -.32, respectively). Vulnerability and contingent self-esteem also amplified the negative affect and self-esteem link (βs = -0.10 and -0.11, respectively). The findings suggest that contingent self-esteem is an important process underlying narcissism.

The present study examines the relationship between social media comparison pressure, self-esteem-dependent use of social media and depressive mood in an online recruited sample of social media users (n = 103). The theoretical starting point is social comparative theory, concepts of contingent self-esteem and cognitive models of depression. All variables were recorded using specially developed Likert scales (1–5). The descriptive results show an increased level of social media comparison pressure as well as a medium level of self-esteem-dependent online self-regulation; the depressive mood is in the slightly to moderately elevated range. Correlation analyses show medium, significant correlations between comparative pressure, self-esteem dependence and depressive symptoms. A regression-based mediation analysis with bootstrapping shows a significant indirect effect of social media comparison pressure on depressive mood via self-esteem-dependent use, while at the same time maintaining a direct effect. The findings speak in favor of partial mediation and support the assumption that social media has a particularly stressful effect where frequent upward comparisons meet a fragile, externally regulated self-esteem. In practice, the results imply that preventive and therapeutic approaches should not primarily aim at reducing use, but at strengthening a less feedback-dependent, internally anchored self-esteem and a reflection on the comparative logics of digital environments.

Religious leaders occupy unique spaces as heads of communities who both provide care and support but also help face and navigate conflict within and outside of these congregations. Conflicts are becoming increasingly heightened as the world continues to polarize across various divides. Both psychology and theology have named humility as a virtue that may be helpful for religious leaders placed in complicated situations. Additionally, intellectual humility and differentiation of self (i.e., emotion regulation and capacity for boundaried relationships with others) have garnered attention as a possible critical virtue for religious leaders. These virtues may especially be critical in emerging religious leaders whose formation is still in progress. Therefore, in this study, emerging religious leaders undergoing psychological assessments for ordination were examined. Self-report measures of general and intellectual humility and differentiation of self were considered alongside performance-based assessments of personality structures (i.e., Rorschach inkblot test). Results indicated that interpersonal guardedness (V-Comp; vigilance to social threats) on the Rorschach was negatively associated with humility, with the relationship being mediated through differentiation and contingent self-esteem (self-esteem that is reliant on external validation). Another subscale, Si1 (space integration; complex thinking where various factors are considered and integrated together), was negatively associated with intellectual humility, which was moderated by differentiation. Implications on the role of differentiation on general and intellectual humility and existing personality structures are considered and discussed.

Parental maltreatment has profound and severe negative effects on children's physical and mental development, as well as on family functioning and stability. Although the existing literature extensively investigates the mechanisms underlying parental maltreatment, the interdependence of parental behaviors and the unique role of cultural context-specifically, the potential influence of parental self-esteem on maltreatment behavior within the Chinese cultural framework-remain underexplored. Therefore, this study utilized a longitudinal Actor-Partner Interdependence Mediation Model (APIMeM) to track 627 pairs of parents of fourth-grade elementary school students (fathers: M_age = 35.06 years, SD = 5.80; mothers: M_age = 33.09 years, SD = 5.89) over a 2-year period with three assessments. The aim was to examine the relationship between Child-Invested Contingent Self-Esteem (CCSE) and parental maltreatment, and to explore the potential mediating role of emotional dysregulation. The results indicated that parental CCSE significantly predicted their own maltreatment behaviors and directly predict their partner's maltreatment behaviors. Emotional dysregulation mediated the relationship between CCSE and parental maltreatment: parents' CCSE influenced their partner's emotional dysregulation, which in turn affected their own maltreatment behaviors. Simultaneously, parents' CCSE influenced their own emotional dysregulation, which indirectly affected their partner's maltreatment behaviors. This study provides a novel understanding of the mechanisms underlying parental maltreatment from the perspectives of CCSE and emotional dysregulation, highlighting the key role of parental interaction patterns and emotional transmission in the occurrence of family violence. These findings offer empirical support for the development of effective parental maltreatment prevention and intervention strategies that are culturally tailored to the Chinese context.

Excessive study behaviour as a precursor to academic burnout is receiving increasing attention in the research landscape. However, potential risk factors for this behaviour remain largely unconsidered. Against this background, this study, based on the self-esteem model of burnout, examines the risk-increasing influence of academic self-esteem contingency on burnout and extends the empirical research on this topic by investigating the mediating effect of excessive study behaviour. Moreover, it investigates the indirect effect of parental academic negative conditional regard at school age on burnout during university. A serial mediation model was used to analyse the research questions cross-sectionally across a sample of 624 students at German universities. The data was collected in the winter semester 2023/24. Excessive study behaviour mediated the relationships between academic self-esteem contingency and the burnout dimensions of exhaustion and reduced self-efficacy. Moreover, parental academic negative conditional regard experienced during school age showed indirect effects on exhaustion and cynicism at university. The findings provide empirical support for the self-esteem model of burnout, which posits that burnout occurs as a result of a self-esteem that is contingent upon academic performance and compensatory excessive engagement. Furthermore, this study provides evidence of the long-term negative effects of parental academic negative conditional regard from school through the university years.

Romantic relationships in early adulthood have been shown to have a significant impact on an individual's sense of self-worth, particularly when self-esteem becomes dependent on relational dynamics. This study explores the manifestation and impact of Relationship Contingent Self-Esteem (RCSE) on psychological well-being among young adults in Padang, Indonesia. A qualitative survey approach was utilized to collect data from 200 participants (75 males and 125 females) through open-ended questionnaires designed to capture personal experiences and perceptions related to self-worth in romantic contexts. Thematic analysis was conducted using MAXQDA software in three stages: open coding to identify key concepts, axial coding to uncover patterns, and selective coding to synthesize overarching themes. The findings of the present study indicate that external validation from romantic partners plays a pivotal role in shaping self-evaluation and emotional states. Dependence on partner approval has been demonstrated to correspond with fluctuations in self-esteem, which in turn has been demonstrated to impact overall psychological well-being. The findings underscore the importance of addressing emotional vulnerabilities in romantic relationships. The necessity for targeted interventions, such as psychoeducational programs and emotional regulation training, is also suggested. The purpose of these interventions is to foster emotional resilience and promote healthy relational development during early adulthood.

This study aims to validate a shortened and adapted French version of a self-esteem contingency measure specifically designed to evaluate how self-esteem depends on two fundamental psychological needs: competence and affiliation. To ensure a clear understanding and broaden the tool's validity across diverse populations, it was tested among three groups: students, job seekers, and employees. Four samples participated in the survey: students (N = 221, N = 507), job seekers (N = 270), and employees (N = 328). Participants completed the adapted self-esteem contingency scale along with other selected scales to assess convergent and discriminant validity. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory analyses (CFA, ESEM, Bifactor-CFA, and Bifactor-ESEM) were conducted to explore the scale's structure. The EFA revealed a two-dimensional structure, while the confirmatory analyses suggested a bifactorial model composed of one global factor and three specific factors: contingency regarding competence, self-criticism, and contingency regarding relationships. The bifactorial model demonstrated good internal consistency across all groups and satisfactory temporal stability. Correlation analyses with other constructs supported the convergent and discriminant validity of the scale. Overall, the shortened and adapted French version of the self-esteem contingency measure is a valid and reliable instrument. It assesses global self-esteem contingency while accounting for the specificities related to the needs for competence and affiliation. This dual focus enhances the scale's applicability in both research and intervention contexts.

Relationship between the Two Forms of Self-esteem and Loneliness: Focusing on Contingent Self-esteem and Sense of Authenticity

ABSTRACT While psychological interventions typically focus on enhancing overall self-esteem, less attention has been paid to contingent self-esteem – where self-worth depends on external validation. This study examines how Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) differentially affects both types of self-esteem, while investigating the mediating roles of mindfulness and self-compassion. Using a single-group pretest-posttest design with 206 participants, these variables were assessed before and after an eight-week MBSR training. Results revealed that MBSR produced a greater reduction in contingent self-esteem than increase in overall self-esteem, suggesting the intervention’s particular suitability for addressing validation-dependent self-worth. Both mindfulness and self-compassion mediated these effects, with self-compassion showing stronger influence on contingent self-esteem reduction. These findings suggest that MBSR, particularly through its self-compassion component, may offer an effective approach for developing more stable self-worth – especially relevant in today’s digital environment where validation-seeking through social media can significantly impact psychological well-being.

Inferiority feelings is a complex phenomenon arising from perceptions of deficiency, both real and imagined. This systematic review analyzes 14 international journals and finds that inferiority feeling is influenced by various internal, external, and demographic factors. Internal factors, such as physical disabilities, contingent self-esteem, and emotional intelligence, significantly contribute to individuals' perceptions of themselves. Meanwhile, external factors, including parenting styles and social exclusion, as well as demographic factors like parental education levels and socioeconomic conditions, also have a significant impact. These findings emphasize the need for a holistic approach in understanding and addressing inferiority feeling, which can serve as a guideline for designing effective interventions in both educational and family settings.

Purpose Because brand addiction is one of the most intense forms of consumer–brand relationships, this type of behavior has recently attracted the attention of researchers in the field of consumer behavior management. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the antecedents and consequences of brand addiction among Iranian consumers. Design/methodology/approach This research used a cross-sectional study based on a questionnaire to collect data from a sample of 401 people in Iran. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypotheses. Findings This study found that brand love and brand involvement significantly influence brand addiction. Brand addiction was also positively associated with contingent self-esteem (CSE), compulsive shopping and resilience to negative information. Additionally, the results revealed a positive and significant effect of brand involvement on brand love and a similar positive and significant effect of CSE on compulsive shopping. Originality/value By examining the antecedents and consequences of brand addiction in an Islamic country, this research offers valuable insights that can enrich the literature on brand addiction in consumer behavior and brand management.

How social media influences users depends largely on motivations for its use and how the user interprets social media-facilitated interactions. Contingent self-esteem, a construct rooted in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), can account for differential effects, including addictive use. Three preregistered studies (ntotal = 822) derived social media contingent self-esteem (SMCSE) and examined the factor structure and associations with social media use, addiction, and disorder criteria. Study 1 (N = 412) analyzed exploratory and confirmatory factors. Study 2 (N = 230) examined associations with other domains of contingent self-esteem, basic psychological needs satisfaction and frustration, and measures of social media use and addiction. Study 3 (N = 192) examined associations between SMCSE, identity bubble reinforcement (echo chambers), and social media outcomes. SMCSE was associated with greater social media use and intensity, identity bubble reinforcement, social media addiction, and disorder criteria. Exploratory support was found for mediation models in which identity bubble reinforcement predicted greater SMCSE, which in turn predicted a greater likelihood of social media addiction and disorder.

Identity dysfunction is considered core to psychopathology, contributing to emotional and interpersonal problems across psychiatric diagnoses. Despite its centrality in theories of personality and psychopathology, the empirical research on the structure of identity dysfunction is fragmented by a plethora of self-report measures assessing varied domains of identity dysfunction. This project examines conceptual domains of identity dysfunction in self-report assessments, with the goal of elucidating a clear structure of identity dysfunction to advance both theory and measurement. Toward this aim, we a) investigate the factor structure of identity dysfunction in existing self-report measures, using exploratory factor analysis and b) examine relationships between identity dysfunction and closely related constructs, using exploratory structural equation modeling. We assess responses from 632 young adults to 17 commonly used identity functioning self-report measures. In a series of exploratory factor analyses, we identified four content-domains of Identity Dysfunction (Self-Alienation, Susceptibility to External Influence, Self-Dysregulation, and Contingent Self-Esteem) and three content domains of Identity Clarity (Self-Consistency, Reflective Functioning, and Authentic Living). These content domains were largely well-represented by a single factor. In a series of exploratory structural equation models, emergent factors related similarly to personality, emotion dysregulation, and values and problems in interpersonal relationships.

The literature on bullying perpetration is underpinned by gendered undertones, commonly portraying men as bullies given men’s greater tendency to exhibit stereotypically masculine and overtly grandiose features of narcissism. Due to the lack of gender-sensitive inventories employed, the association between narcissism and bullying perpetration among women remains understudied. Using an all-women sample (N = 314), the current study explored grandiose narcissism (overtly immodest and domineering) and vulnerable narcissism (hypersensitive and neurotic), the latter being more prevalent among women, in relation to bullying peers. Correlation analyses showed that vulnerable narcissism was positively associated with verbal, physical, and indirect bullying. At the subscale level, contingent self-esteem, devaluing, and entitlement rage were positively associated with all three types of bullying. Grandiose narcissism was positively associated with physical and verbal bullying, as was grandiose fantasy at the subscale level, and exploitativeness was positively associated with all three types of bullying. When grandiose and vulnerable narcissism were simultaneously entered into a regression model, only vulnerable narcissism emerged as a positive predictor of physical and verbal bullying. At the subscale level, devaluing positively predicted verbal and indirect bullying, whereas hiding the self negatively predicted indirect bullying. Expressions of vulnerable narcissism, more so than grandiose narcissism, may be relevant for bullying perpetration among women. Implications for anti-bullying interventions are discussed.

Objective: The study examined the mediating and double mediating effects of fear of missing out and social networking sites (SNS) self-expression (positive self-expression and honest self-expression) on the relationship between adolescents’ friendship contingent self-esteem and SNS addiction tendency.
 Methods: The participants in this study were a total of 413 students (207 male and 206 female) in the first to third years of middle school. Each variable was self-reported using instruments measuring friendship contingent self-esteem, fear of missing out, SNS self-expression, and SNS addiction tendency. For data analysis, frequency analysis, Frequency, Cronbach’s α reliability, and Pearson correlation analyses were performed using the SPSS Statistics 27.0 program, and the mediating effect and the double mediating effect were confirmed using the PROCESS macro model 6 of the SPSS PROCESS macro 4.2 program. Results: Adolescents’ SNS addiction tendencies were positively correlated with friendship contingent self-esteem, fear of missing out and positive self-expression, and honest self-expression. Second, in the relationship between adolescents’ friendship contingent self-esteem and SNS addiction tendency, mediating and double mediating effects of fear of missing out and positive self-expression were found. Third, in the relationship between friendship contingent self-esteem and SNS addiction tendencies, the mediating effect of honest self-expression and the double mediating effect of fear of missing out and honest self-expression were not significant.
 Conclusions: This study emphasizes that adolescents with SNS addiction tendencies due to high friendship contingent self-esteem should be encouraged to reduce their fear of missing out and positive self-expression.

In this article, we integrate social exchange theory with insights from contingent self-esteem to explain why leader transparency (LT) might not always be reciprocated by enhanced follower voice. We theorize that when leaders are transparent, they initiate a social process that offers the exchange of honesty by signaling that the work environment is psychologically safe enough for followers to express their opinions in return. Yet, for individuals whose self-esteem fragilely relies on the approval of others (i.e., self-esteem based on others’ approval), reciprocating transparent communication is more difficult because speaking up exposes their self-worth to the potential for rejection. We test our model at the individual and team level. In Study 1 (individual level), we find that LT is positively related to follower self-rated voice one-month later through enhanced follower psychological safety, but only when follower self-esteem based on others’ approval is low as opposed to high. In Study 2 (team level), we find that team LT is positively related to leader-rated team voice six-months later through team psychological safety; however, only when team level self-esteem based on others’ approval is low, but not high. These results underscore that leader transparency can be reciprocated with enhanced follower voice, but only when followers have secure and stable self-esteem.

Contingent self-esteem captures the fragile nature of self-esteem and is often regarded as suboptimal to psychological functioning. Self-compassion is another important self-related concept assumed to promote mental health and well-being. However, research on the relation of self-compassion to contingent self-esteem is lacking. Two studies were conducted to explore the role of selfcompassion, either as a personal characteristic or an induced mindset, in influencing the effects of contingent self-esteem on well-being. Study 1 recruited 256 Chinese college students (30.4% male, mean age = 21.72 years) who filled out measures of contingent self-esteem, self-compassion, and well-being. The results found that self-compassion moderated the effect of contingent self-esteem on well-being. In Study 2, a sample of 90 Chinese college students (34% male, mean age = 18.39 years) were randomly assigned to either a control or self-compassion group. They completed baseline trait measures of contingent self-esteem, self-compassion, and self-esteem. Then, they were led to have a 12-min break (control group) or listen to a 12-min self-compassion audio (self-compassion group), followed by a social stress task and outcome measures. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of the brief self-compassion training and its moderating role in influencing the effects of contingent self-esteem on negative affects after the social stress task. This research provides implications that to equip with a self-compassionate mindset could lower the risk of the impairment of well-being associated with elements of contingent selfesteem, which involves a fragile sense of self-worth. It may also provide insights into the development of an "optimal selfesteem" and the improvement of well-being.

BackgroundNumerous studies have demonstrated that low, unstable, or contingent self-esteem negatively affects youth development and is linked to adolescent psychopathology. However, most previous studies have applied variable-oriented approaches, and less is known about the natural combination of self-esteem facets in school-aged adolescents, how parental conditional regard affects self-esteem profiles, and how these profiles relate to self-kindness, self-judgement, and life satisfaction.MethodsBy employing a longitudinal person-oriented approach (i.e., latent profile analysis and latent transition analysis) on two-wave longitudinal data from 587 German secondary school students (52.3% female, Mage=13.52 years), this study aims to (1) identify adolescents’ self-esteem profiles based on the level, stability, and contingency of self-esteem; (2) examine the impact of parental conditional regard on the self-esteem profiles explained using self-determination theory; and (3) examine these profiles’ relationship with self-kindness, self-judgement, and life satisfaction.ResultsFour self-esteem profiles were derived: optimal-secure (~ 8%), good (~ 18%), average (~ 36%), and low-insecure (~ 38%). The results reveal a concerningly high proportion as well as a high stability of low-insecure self-esteem (~ 98%) and indicate the strong negative influence of parental conditional regard on the development of optimal-secure self-esteem. Furthermore, the results demonstrate strong correlations between optimal-secure self-esteem, highly developed self-kindness, and high life satisfaction.ConclusionsUsing a longitudinal person-oriented approach, it was possible to identify a group with highly vulnerable self-esteem, characterised by particularly low self-kindness, strong self-judgment, and lower life satisfaction. The findings of this study support the need for prevention and intervention targeting adolescents with low-insecure self-esteem.

In general, it is ben eficial and adaptive to have high self-esteem; however, contingent self-esteem depending on approval is not so advantageous. This article presents research on a Polish version of the Contingent Self-Esteem Scale (CSES), which measures contingent self-esteem. The CSES was administered on a total of 1,199 participants; a range of other instruments were also used to establish the validity of the CSES. The CSES proved to have acceptable internal consistency and validity and factor analyses revealed that it contains four factors: vulnerability to negative opinions, dependence on physical attractiveness, dependence on opinions, and dependence on self-standards. Contingent self-esteem was positively correlated with neuroticism, agreeableness, ruminating, anxiety, and maladaptive perfectionism; it was negatively correlated with general self-esteem and self-efficacy. Mediational analyses confirmed the hypothesis that low general self-esteem causes high rumination about oneself, which in turn is related to high contingent self-esteem.