Contiguous Protected Areas Research Articles

Selection of National Park Candidate Areas Based on Spatial Overlap Characteristics of Protected Areas in China

The integration and optimization of protected areas is an important part of the construction of a protected areas system centered around national parks. How to best integrate and optimize protected areas is the most urgent problem in the reform. This paper analyzes the spatial overlap and continuity of protected areas in China on a national scale and proposes a collection of candidate areas for national parks. The results show that ➀ 52.9% of the protected areas overlap, with nature reserves, forest parks and scenic areas showing the most overlap, and the maximum number of overlaps is five. ➁ There are 1145 groups of contiguous protected areas that form continuous boundary areas, accounting for 58.9% of the total number of protected areas analyzed in this paper. Of these continuous zones, 48.55% consists of only two protected areas. There are 51 continuous areas with more than 10 protected areas, showing point continuous and/or patchy continuous boundary characteristics. ➂ According to the identified continuous areas, overlapping degree, protection levels and function, the candidate areas of national parks in China are proposed. Continuous areas with comprehensive ecosystem services, high-intensity protection levels, and high overlap intensity are selected as preliminary candidate areas for national parks. These are further refined based on their co-location with four types of key areas. A total of 41 areas are recommended as potential national parks. These continuous areas are highly consistent with the national “two screens, three belts” strategy, and nine of them are essentially consistent with the current national parks pilot. These results indicate that the recommended areas selected according to this research method are reasonable, and can provide a scientific basis for determining the spatial layout of China’s new protected areas system and the establishment of national parks.

Living with human encroachment: Status and distribution of Green Peafowl in northern stronghold of Thailand

Green Peafowl have declined significantly across much of their historical range mostly due to habitat loss and degradation following intensive agricultural expansion, logging and infrastructure development. In Thailand, two strongholds remain, in the west and the north. While the western stronghold has been extensively investigated and is well protected, the status of the species in the northern stronghold remain unknown. This stronghold is distributed over at least four contiguous protected areas surrounded by agricultural landscapes, where conflict with farmers has recently been reported. The aims of this work are to 1) investigate the species’ status in this northern stronghold, 2) define the species’ habitat use within and outside protected areas, and 3) to provide management suggestions for the species’ long-term survival. Our results showed a high probability of species occurrence (>0.5) in the stronghold within the four protected areas. Using Distance sampling over 54 transects, 2 km long, located in the interior, edge and agriculture landscape, we estimated a density of 15.82 calling males/km2 over the whole stronghold with densities ranging from 13.55 to 19.89 calling males/km2 in the four protected areas separately. A general linear models showed that species distribution was affected positively by dry dipterocarp forest, the main species’ habitat over its range, and negatively by human settlements. A higher number of the species was predicted within the protected areas than outside, highlighting the significance of the protected contiguous forest patches in the stronghold for the long-term conservation of the species combined with the supporting agro-ecotourism through the species existence in the surrounding agricultural landscapes. Beside protected areas management, cooperation by local communities has to be included in any conservation program to avert human-wildlife conflict.

Unsustainable anthropogenic mortality disrupts natal dispersal and promotes inbreeding in leopards.

Anthropogenic mortality of wildlife is typically inferred from measures of the absolute decline in population numbers. However, increasing evidence suggests that indirect demographic effects including changes to the age, sex, and social structure of populations, as well as the behavior of survivors, can profoundly impact population health and viability. Specifically, anthropogenic mortality of wildlife (especially when unsustainable) and fragmentation of the spatial distribution of individuals (home‐ranges) could disrupt natal dispersal mechanisms, with long‐term consequences to genetic structure, by compromising outbreeding behavior and gene flow. We investigate this threat in African leopards (Panthera pardus pardus), a polygynous felid with male‐biased natal dispersal. Using a combination of spatial (home‐range) and genetic (21 polymorphic microsatellites) data from 142 adult leopards, we contrast the structure of two South African populations with markedly different histories of anthropogenically linked mortality. Home‐range overlap, parentage assignment, and spatio‐genetic autocorrelation together show that historical exploitation of leopards in a recovering protected area has disrupted and reduced subadult male dispersal, thereby facilitating opportunistic male natal philopatry, with sons establishing territories closer to their mothers and sisters. The resultant kin‐clustering in males of this historically exploited population is comparable to that of females in a well‐protected reserve and has ultimately led to localized inbreeding. Our findings demonstrate novel evidence directly linking unsustainable anthropogenic mortality to inbreeding through disrupted dispersal in a large, solitary felid and expose the genetic consequences underlying this behavioral change. We therefore emphasize the importance of managing and mitigating the effects of unsustainable exploitation on local populations and increasing habitat fragmentation between contiguous protected areas by promoting in situ recovery and providing corridors of suitable habitat that maintain genetic connectivity.

Densities and population sizes of raptors in Uganda’s conservation areas

Projected increases in Africa's human population over the next 40 years point to further, large-scale conversion of natural habitats into farmland, with far-reaching consequences for raptor species, some of which are now largely restricted to protected areas (PAs). To assess the importance of PAs for raptors in Uganda, we conducted an annual road survey through savanna, pastoral and agricultural land during 2008–2015. Here, we present density estimates for 34 diurnal raptor species, 17 of which were encountered largely or entirely within PAs. These included seven out of eight globally threatened or near-threatened species surveyed. Based mainly on published demographic values, we converted density estimates (birds 100 km−2) to numbers of adult pairs, for 10 resident, savanna-dependent species. We then estimated adult population sizes within conservation areas (individual PAs and clusters of contiguous PAs), based on the area of savanna in each site. This suggested that two threatened residents, Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus and Lappet-faced Vulture Torgos tracheliotos, have national breeding populations of just 53–75 and 74–105 pairs, respectively. A third species, White-headed Vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis, may have a breeding population of just 22–32 pairs. In each case, at least 90% of pairs are thought to reside within Uganda's five largest conservation areas. In three cases our estimates of pair density were markedly lower than in other studies, while in six cases they were broadly consistent with published findings, often derived using more intensive survey methods. Further work is required to determine the accuracy of our estimates for individual conservation areas, and to assess the long-term viability of Uganda's threatened raptor populations.

Large-scale assessment of the presence of Darwin’s fox across its newly discovered range

The Darwin’s fox is one of the most threatened carnivores worldwide and was thought to occur in only two isolated areas. Recently this canid was found in the Valdivian Coastal Range, between the previously known populations, but other than their presence, little is known about these populations. Here we report the results of camera trap surveys conducted between 2012 and 2016 (18,872 camera days), including surveys in 30 different sites—distributed along c. 400 km—and monitoring in two contiguous protected areas. Darwin’s fox detection rate was higher when forest cover was higher or when domestic dog (Canis familiaris) detection rate was lower. Given confirmed presence, the detection rate was higher for sites in Chiloé Island, than in the mainland’s Coastal Range. In mainland, we found evidence of dogs’ presence in most of the sites we detected Darwin’s foxes. In the protected areas monitored, Darwin’s foxes were found to use 12% and 15% of the area sampled in 2015 and 2016 respectively, although there was high uncertainty in the 2016 estimates due to low probability of detection. We did not detect Darwin’s foxes in forestry plantations. Our findings provide support for a continuous distribution along the mainland’s Coastal Range and Chiloé Island but we hypothesize—based on the major differences observed in detection rates between these areas—that local densities are lower in mainland than in Chiloé Island. Finally, Darwin’s fox appears to be sensitive to human disturbance and these disturbances, especially dogs, are ubiquitous within its newly discovered range.

Rank aggregation of local expert knowledge for conservation planning of the critically endangered saola

There has been much recent interest in using local knowledge and expert opinion for conservation planning, particularly for hard-to-detect species. Although it is possible to ask for direct estimation of quantities such as population size, relative abundance is easier to estimate. However, an expert's knowledge is often geographically restricted relative to the area of interest. Combining (or aggregating) experts' assessments of relative abundance is difficult when each expert only knows a part of the area of interest. We used Google's PageRank algorithm to aggregate ranked abundance scores elicited from local experts through a rapid rural-appraisal method. We applied this technique to conservation planning for the saola (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis), a poorly known bovid. Near a priority landscape for the species, composed of 3 contiguous protected areas, we asked groups of local people to indicate relative abundances of saola and other species by placing beans on community maps. For each village, we used this information to rank areas within the knowledge area of that village for saola abundance. We used simulations to compare alternative methods to aggregate the rankings from the different villages. The best-performing method was then used to produce a single map of relative abundance across the entire landscape, an area larger than that known to any one village. This map has informed prioritization of surveys and conservation action in the continued absence of direct information about the saola.

Patterns of plant phenology in Amazonian seasonally flooded and unflooded forests

AbstractFew studies have successfully monitored community‐wide phenological patterns in seasonally flooded Amazonian várzea forests, where a prolonged annual flood pulse arguably generates the greatest degree of seasonality of any low‐latitude ecosystem on Earth. We monitored the vegetative and reproductive plant phenology of várzea (VZ) floodplain and adjacent terra firme (TF) forests within two contiguous protected areas in western Brazilian Amazonia, using three complementary methods: monthly canopy observations of 1056 individuals (TF: 556, VZ: 500), twice monthly collections from 0.5‐m2 litterfall traps within two 100‐ha plots (1 TF, 1 VZ; 96 traps per plot), and monthly ground surveys of residual fruit‐fall along transect‐grids within each 100‐ha plot (12 km per plot). Surveys encompassed the entire annual flood cycle and employed a floating trap design to cope with fluctuating water levels. Phenology patterns were generally similar in both forest types. Leaffall peaked during the aquatic phase in várzea forest and the dry season in terra firme. Flowering typically followed leaffall and leaf flush, extending into the onset of the terrestrial phase and rainy season in várzea and terra firme, respectively. Abiotic seed dispersal modes were relatively more prevalent in várzea than terra firme; the main contrast in fruiting seasonality was more likely a result of differences in community composition and relative abundance of seed dispersal modes than differences within individual genera. We emphasize the difficulty in distinguishing the role of the flood pulse from other seasonal environmental variables without multiannual data or spatially replicated studies across the spectrum of Amazonian forest types.

Using species distribution modeling to set management priorities for mammals in northern Thailand

Rapid deforestation has occurred in northern Thailand and is expected to continue. Thus, identification and protection of sufficient amounts of the highest quality habitat is urgent. Wildlife occurrence data were gathered along wildlife trails and patrolling routes in protected areas and forest patches outside of protected areas. Geographic Information Systems, bio-physical and anthropogenic variables were used to generate suitable habitats for 17 mammal species using maximum entropy theory (MAXENT). Suitable habitats for all species were aggregated, and used to set priorities for wildlife conservation in northern Thailand. In addition, predicted deforestation was overlaid on moderate and high priority areas to determine future wildlife threats and aid decision-making concerning which areas to protect. The results revealed that the total extent of suitable habitats for the studied species covers approximately 37% of the region. Nearly 70% of the total habitat for endangered and vulnerable species is predicted in large and contiguous protected areas. Threatened areas with high biodiversity encompass approximately 1.9% of the region, and 66% of this figure is predicted to occur in existing protected areas. Based on the model outcomes, we recommend reducing human pressures, enhancing the density of prey species and conservation outside protected areas, as well as increasing connectivity of suitable habitats among protected areas that are too small to maintain viable populations in isolation.

Hunting, Livelihoods and Declining Wildlife in the Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary, North Myanmar

The Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary, North Myanmar and three contiguous protected areas, comprise some of the largest expanses of natural forest remaining in the region. Demand for wildlife products has resulted in unsustainable exploitation of commercially valuable species resulting in local extirpation of vulnerable species. Camera trap, track and sign, and questionnaire-based surveys were used to examine (a) wildlife species targeted by hunters, (b) the importance of wild meat for household consumption, and (c) the significance of hunting as a livelihood activity for resident villages. Certain commercially valuable species highly preferred by hunters were either completely absent from hunt records (tiger, musk deer and otter) or infrequently obtained during actual hunts (bear, pangolin). Species obtained by hunters were commonly occurring species such as muntjacs with low commercial value and not highly preferred by hunters. Fifty eight percent of respondents (n = 84) indicated trade, 27% listed subsistence use and 14% listed human-wildlife conflict as the main reason for hunting (n = 84). Average amount of wild meat consumed per month is not significantly higher during the hunting season compared to the planting season (paired t-test, P > 0.05). Throughout the year, the average amount of fish consumed per month was higher than livestock or wild meat (Friedman test, P < 0.0001). Hunting is driven largely by trade and wild meat, while not a critical source of food for a large number of families could potentially be an important, indirect source of access to food for hunting families. Findings and trends from this study are potentially useful in helping design effective conservation strategies to address globally prevalent problems of declining wildlife populations and dependent human communities. The study provides recommendations to reduce illegal hunting and protect vulnerable species by strengthening park management through enforcement, increasing the opportunity costs of poaching, establishing no-take zones and research to determine the economic significance of hunting for livelihoods.

Smart Subsidies for Conservation

Protecting threatened biodiversity hotspots in densely populated areas requires the creation of landscape-scale contiguous reserves and corridors to support viable species popula tions and ecological processes (e.g., Cincotta, Wisnewski, and Engelman 2000; Margules and Pressey 2000). Creating contiguous pro tected areas cannot be accomplished, however, without the voluntary cooperation of private landholders. Their cooperation is more likely if they are compensated for financial losses, e.g., U.S. Conservation Reserve Program (Innes, Polasky, and Tschirhart 1998; Farraro and Kiss 2002). We explore how a subsidy can be used to create contiguous habitat volun tarily. The subsidy creates an explicit network externality between neighboring landowners by paying an additional agglom eration bonus when they retire land adjacent to other conserved parcels, both their own and their neighbors (Parkhurst et al. 2002; Parkhurst and Shogren 2007; Warziniack, Shogren, and Parkhurst 2007; Drechsler et al. 2007). The choice of the word smart is not meant as a pejorative term that implies that other subsidies are somehow dumb. Rather, the choice follows the tradition set in the ex perimental economics literature on smart markets, in which the exchange institution is designed smart to account for interdepen dencies between traders in water and elec tricity markets (see McCabe, Rassenti, and Smith 1991). These markets provide feedback on physical constraints (e.g., congestion) to buyers and sellers, which then allows them to increase efficiency of trades beyond that usually attainable by the market itself. Simi larly, the subsidy accounts for the biolog ical connection across landowners otherwise not explicitly addressed in typical incentive schemes. We use experimental economic methods to test bed the subsidy proposal relative to two standard policy options, compulsion, and a standard fixed-fee subsidy. The point of our exercise is to illustrate the potential for such an interlinked subsidy scheme for habitat con servation. Our results support the general no tion that the subsidy outperforms both alternative policies at creating the desired con tiguous habitat reserve for the same costs.

Habitat and Distribution of the Ruffed Lemur,Varecia, North of the Bay of Antongil in Northeastern Madagascar

Abstract: Here we present information on the conservation status of ruffed lemurs (Varecia) north of the Bay of Antongil in northeastern Madagascar. Two contiguous protected areas were recently established that traverse this region via blocks of forest connected by narrow forest corridors: the Masoala National Park, which expands further to the east, and the Makira Protected Area, which expands further to the west and northwest. The two extant ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata and V. rubra, overlapped in this region historically and, on rare occasions, hybridized. As such, land north of the Bay of Antongil is a critical part of the ruffed lemur's northern geographic range. Habitat surveys and interviews with local informants were carried out in this region to determine the extent of suitable habitat for Varecia populations, to assess the extent of human exploitation of this genus, and to obtain data on the western and northern range limits of V. rubra. Interviews indicated that there are populations of V. ...

Transboundary conservation in the greater Virunga landscape: Its importance for landscape species

Several of the protected areas within the Albertine Rift are contiguous with protected areas across international boundaries. This is particularly true for the Greater Virunga Landscape, which includes Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and ten contiguous protected areas in Uganda and Rwanda. The larger bodied animal species that occur in this landscape have moved freely across what are now international borders for millennia and some species probably need this larger landscape if their populations are to remain viable. An analysis was carried out to identify these ‘landscape species’ and the importance of this cross-border movement is assessed in the light of civil wars in the region. For 13 years the International Gorilla Conservation Programme has been working in the Virunga Volcanoes and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park to foster transboundary collaboration. The results have shown that regular meetings and planning of activities by wardens can lead to better conservation even with countries at war with each other. More recently the Wildlife Conservation Society has started a programme to support transboundary collaboration further north in the landscape so that all contiguous protected areas are working together. The results show that mountain gorilla numbers have on the whole increased during the past 25 years despite civil wars in the region and this can largely be attributed to their ability to generate income from tourism but also to enhanced transboundary collaboration between Congo, Rwanda and Uganda. Ungulate numbers on the other hand have declined drastically since the 1960s but it is shown that the connectivity in the landscape has been important in reducing the impact of the civil war on elephants.

The Fate of the Amazonian Areas of Endemism

Abstract: Amazonia is the largest and most diverse of the tropical forest wilderness areas. Recent compilations indicate at least 40,000 plant species, 427 mammals, 1294 birds, 378 reptiles, 427 amphibians, and around 3,000 fishes. Not homogeneous in its plant and animal communities, it is an archipelago of distinct areas of endemism separated by the major rivers. Biogeographic studies of terrestrial vertebrates have identified eight such areas in the Brazilian Amazon: Tapajós, Xingú, and Belém (all in Brazil); Rondônia (mostly in Brazil); and portions of Napo, Imeri, Guiana, and Inambari. They range in size from more than 1.7 million km2 (Guiana) to 199,211 km2 (Belém). Forest loss in each ranges from 2% to 13% of their area, except for Xingu (nearly 27% lost) and Belém, (now only about one‐third of its forest remains). Napo, Imeri, and Guiana have &gt;40% of their lands in protected areas, Inambari, Rondônia, Tapajós, and Xingu between 20% and 40%, and Belém &lt;20%. Strictly protected areas in each, however, are limited—from 0.28% to 11.7%. Areas of endemism should be the basic geographic unit for the creation of conservation corridors of contiguous protected areas, providing broad connectivity on both margins and within the interior of areas of endemism. The aim is to build a conservation system that is large and resilient enough to circumvent global changes, accommodate improved living standards for local populations, conserve biodiversity, and safeguard the ecological services forests and rivers provide. Elected leaders are now realizing that the traditional economy based on cattle ranching and logging is unsustainable. Deforestation proceeds apace, but the federal government is implementing the Protected Areas Programme for Amazonia, which seeks to protect 50 million ha, and a number of state governments are now active in creating protected areas and incorporating appropriate conservation measures in their development plans.

Preliminary results on movements of a radio-collared elephant in Lobéké National Park, south-east Cameroon

Athough actual numbers and movements are unclear the south east region of Cameroon harbours a significant population of forest elephants. Preliminary results from data collected for 8 months from a 5 year old male forest elephant radio collared in March 2001 suggest that elephants spent more time in the forest in the logging concessions and professional hunting zones that they did in the Lobeke NP itself. Initial results from the telemetry programme, which was part of WWF's Jengi project, confirm the need to step up protection efforts including anti-poaching patrols to curb the poaching and illegal ivory trade opportunities that are common within the logging concessions. Further monitoring on radio collared elephant will assist in determining important corridors and migratory routes within the trans-boundary conservation programme region involving contiguous protected areas in this region including the Dzanga-Sangha in Central African Republic, and Nouabale Ndoki NP in the Congo (where at least 3 elephant have been radio collared).