Contamination Of Water Supplies Research Articles

Inhumane medicine: imperial japan’s development and the use of biological weapons during World War II

There is currently an acute lack of information on the activities of Japanese doctors during World War II. Being a country with limited natural, financial, and human resources, Imperial Japan considered biological and chemical weapons one of the most promising and effective means of warfare in its quest to dominate Southeast Asia. In the mid 1920s, the Japanese leadership approved biological and chemical warfare research. The implementation of the biological weapons project, including human testing, was entrusted to Shiro Ishii and a group of Japanese scientists under his leadership, as well as to military and civilian experts. These studies examined the effectiveness of plague, gas gangrene, cholera, anthrax, and other pathogens. Experiments, including detailed descriptions of the subjects suffering and the results of autopsies/vivisections, were carefully documented. Field tests involved the distribution of contaminated food and crops to the Chinese population, as well as the contamination of water supplies. Similarly, in keeping with military interests, the effectiveness of munitions and the effects of decompression, hypothermia, and electric current were investigated on prisoners. After the end of World War II and the surrender of Imperial Japan, large-scale buried victims of experiments were found on the territory of the Peoples Republic of China, including the borders of the USSR. The paper focuses on the ethical component of the studies conducted, based on the dominant view in the Japanese society that all actions for the glory of the country and the emperor are justified and the absence of any ethical considerations due to the prejudice of the Japanese against foreigners in general and the Chinese in particular.

Methods in food defence: a simple and robust screening for 16 rodenticides by LC-DAD/FLD following QuEChERS–based extraction

Fortunately, the intentional contamination of food or water supplies out of criminal or terroristic motivation is a rather rare event. However, in the face of asymmetric warfare and as the consequences of such an event would be severe, food defence as a necessary supplement to food safety is gaining increased attention. While some progress has been made in developing non-target detection devices, the contamination of food or water supplies using readily available rodenticides may still be revealed only by complex analytical techniques. The presented study therefore aimed to develop a quick and easy screening method for the detection of sixteen globally common rodenticides in foodstuffs. Robust operation with limited personnel and analytical resources were one benchmark to be met by the method, which uses a slightly modified QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, safe) protocol for dispersive solid-phase extraction and subsequent ion-pair chromatography with diode-array and fluorescence detection. Quantification limits were as low as 5 µg/kg with satisfying bias (recovery) and repeatability rates of 77 to 117% and 1.8 to 17.1%, respectively. The developed method provides reliable and robust detection of these deadly poisons at toxic concentrations, which was demonstrated impressively in an improvised assault scenario.

Trivalent arsenic impairs the effector response of human CD4+ and CD8+ T cells to influenza A virus ex vivo

Arsenic is a persistent environmental contaminant that humans are exposed to primarily through contaminated water supplies. Arsenic has been shown to have numerous immunomodulatory effects, including deleterious effects on T cell function. However, the effect of arsenic on human T cell function in the context of influenza infection remains poorly characterized. The goal of this study was to determine the effects of arsenic on T cell activation and effector function in a human-relevant ex vivo model with influenza challenge. Flow cytometric analysis of T cells following the treatment of primary human peripheral blood mononuclear cells with environmentally relevant concentrations of arsenic trioxide and subsequent challenge with influenza A virus showed reduced viability, alterations in activation, a reduction in the population of memory cells, and reduced effector function evidenced by decreased IFNγ and granzyme B production. Overall, these studies suggest that arsenic impairs the human T cell response to influenza which corroborates epidemiological findings and could have further implications for antiviral immunity and vaccine efficacy.

Regional and Global Scale Challenges for Controlling Arsenic Contamination in Agricultural Soil, Water Supplies, Foods and Ayurvedic Medicines

Arsenic is naturally present at high concentration levels in aquifers adversely affecting the life of some 200 million people in a number of countries on four continents. Human exposure to As from dietary sources such as marine fish, seafood, poultry, cereals is generally much lower compared to exposure through drinking contaminated water, using contaminated water in food preparation and irrigation of crops. Arsenic toxicity depends on its four valences [As(-III), As0, As(III) and As(V)] and chemical compounds. Thus, in seafood, As is mainly found in its less toxic organic forms. The qualitative and quantitative determinations of individual As species are crucial to understand the environmental fate and behavior of As. The aim of the present review is to give a brief overview on the main As speciation methods and to present how to control As contamination at local and global scales in several environmental (soil, waters) and biological (crops, basic and processed food) samples, as well as complementary and alternative medicinal products marketed as food supplements. In terms of chromatographic separation, emphasis is placed on separation by thin layer chromatography and solid phase extraction. Some approaches to address As contamination (e.g., stabilization in soil, provision of a safe water supply in affected communities) at global and regional scales are also presented.

Hepatitis E in immunocompromised individuals.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) originally identified as a cause of acute icteric hepatitis in developing countries has grown to be a cause of zoonotic viral hepatitis in developed countries such as the United States. While there are eight identified genotypes to date, genotype 1 (HEV1), HEV2, HEV3, HEV4 are the most common to infect humans. HEV1 and HEV2 are most common in developing countries including Latina America, Africa and Asia, and are commonly transmitted through contaminated water supplies leading to regional outbreaks. In contrast HEV3 and HEV4 circulate freely in many mammalian animals and can lead to occasional transmission to humans through fecal contamination or consumption of undercooked meat. The incidence and prevalence of HEV in the United States is undetermined given the absence of FDA approved serological assays and the lack of commercially available testing. In majority of cases, HEV infection is a self-limiting hepatitis requiring only symptomatic treatment. However, this is not the case in immunocompromised individuals, including those that have undergone solid organ or stem cell transplantation. In this subset of patients, chronic infection can be life threatening as hepatic insult can lead to inflammation and fibrosis with subsequent cirrhosis and death. The need for re-transplantation as a result of post-transplant hepatitis is of great concern. In addition, there have been many reported incidents of extrahepatic manifestations, for which the exact mechanisms remain to be elucidated. The cornerstone of treatment in immunocompromised solid organ transplant recipients is reduction of immunosuppressive therapies, while attempting to minimize the risk of organ rejection. Subsequent treatment options include ribavirin, and pegylated interferon alpha in those who have demonstrated ribavirin resistance. Further investigation assessing safety and efficacy of anti-viral therapy is imperative given the rising global health burden. Given this concern, vaccination has been approved in China with other investigations underway throughout the world. In this review we introduce the epidemiology, diagnosis, clinical manifestations, and treatment of HEV, with emphasis on immunocompromised individuals in the United States.

Waters of death: Naegleria Fowleri (the brain eating Amoeba).

Dear Madam, with the commencement of the monsoon season and temperature on the rise again, the incidence of Naegleria Fowleri (Brain-eating amoeba) is also on the rise. The death toll has risen to six in Karachi so far this year as it claims lives of a 19-year-old teenager and an 8-year-old boy adding to the previous 4 deaths out of which one was a 30-year-old neurosurgeon and an another 8-year-old boy. (1) (2) All of them had acquired this amoeba through contaminated water. A recent Karachi water and sewage board (KWSB) report disclose that 70% of its pumping stations are supplying water containing either no or low Chlorine, which is a major threat to the residents of Karachi (3). Naegleria Fowleri is an amoeba and causes a devastating brain infection known as primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). The amoeba is commonly found in warm freshwaters. It infects people when contaminated water enters the body through the nose while performing ablution (Wudu), swimming or bathing, and from there, it travels to the brain (4). (PAM) destroys the brain tissue, and its symptoms start in about five days including headache, fever, nausea & vomiting initially. The later symptoms include stiff neck, altered mental status, seizures, hallucinations and can rapidly progress to death (4). The recommended treatment for Naegleria include a combination of drugs including Amphotericin B (Anti-Fungal) and Miltefosine; however, few people survive, even with treatment (5). (PAM) is difficult to detect because the disease progresses so rapidly that the diagnosis is usually made after death. This is not the first time. Naegleria claimed five lives back in 2016 and many more previously (6), which raises a serious question on the efficiency and preventive measures taken by the concerned departments. The fact that the temperature in Karachi remains warm for the most part of the year and on top of the contaminated water supply (less chlorinated), is gravely concerning. Since prevention is better than cure, the general public must be made aware of Naegleria and advised to avoid swimming, bathing or performing ablution in unchlorinated water. Also, before the summer starts, people should get their underground and overhead water tanks cleaned and chlorinated. Along with warning people, measures should be taken by the responsible departments to make water safe for the citizens and prevent any further deaths by this lethal amoeba.

Sol-gel synthesis of nanostructured ZnO/SrZnO2 with boosted antibacterial and photocatalytic activity

Due to extensive industrialization, toxic dyes and pathogenic microbes are contaminating water supplies at an alarming rate. This situation is alarming for humans and all other living organisms that directly or indirectly depend upon water. Photocatalysis is the best technique for eliminating harmful dyes and pathogenic microbes from drinking water since it is cost-effective and ecologically acceptable. To improve the effectiveness of the photocatalysis technique, materials researchers must develop an ideal photocatalyst with a narrow-bandgap, a broad absorption range, and efficient charge separation. Here, we adopted a facile sol-gel technique to synthesize a nanostructured ZnO/SrZnO 2 composite that acts as an efficient visible light-triggered photocatalyst. The prepared photocatalyst mineralized the azo dye (Congo red, CR) and destroyed the bacterial strain ( Escherichia Coli, E-Coli ) under visible-light-irradiation. The photocatalytic test findings revealed that the as-prepared ZnO/SrZnO 2 composite exhibited a higher photocatalytic efficiency of mineralizing 92.4% of the CR dye as compared to SrZnO 2 (57.9%) and ZnO (34.6%). Kinetic analysis revealed that the CR dye degradation rate over ZnO/SrZnO 2 nanocomposite was 5.6 times faster than pure ZnO while 2.5 times faster than SrZnO 2 . Scavenger's experiments proposed that the peroxide free-radical play a key role, while the positively charged holes play a minor role in the mineralization of CR dye. Additionally, the ZnO/SrZnO 2 composite also shows better antibacterial action, as it kills E.coli more effectively by interfering with its essential cellular activities/functions. The photocatalytic and antibacterial properties of our manufactured ZnO/SrZnO 2 nanocomposite indicate that it has significant potential to mineralize the poisonous dyes and kill pathogenic microbes.

Yersinia Enterocolitica.

Yersinia Enterocolitica.

Comparison of potential drinking water source contamination across one hundred U.S. cities

Drinking water supplies of cities are exposed to potential contamination arising from land use and other anthropogenic activities in local and distal source watersheds. Because water quality sampling surveys are often piecemeal, regionally inconsistent, and incomplete with respect to unregulated contaminants, the United States lacks a detailed comparison of potential source water contamination across all of its large cities. Here we combine national-scale geospatial datasets with hydrologic simulations to compute two metrics representing potential contamination of water supplies from point and nonpoint sources for over a hundred U.S. cities. We reveal enormous diversity in anthropogenic activities across watersheds with corresponding disparities in the potential contamination of drinking water supplies to cities. Approximately 5% of large cities rely on water that is composed primarily of runoff from non-pristine lands (e.g., agriculture, residential, industrial), while four-fifths of all large cities that withdraw surface water are exposed to treated wastewater in their supplies.

A customizable 3D printed device for enzymatic removal of drugs in water

The infiltration of drugs into water is a key global issue, with pharmaceuticals being detected in all nearly aqueous systems at often alarming concentrations. Pharmaceutical contamination of environmental water supplies has been shown to negatively impact ecological equilibrium and pose a risk to human health. In this study, we design and develop a novel system for the removal of drugs from water, termed as Printzyme. The device, fabricated with stereolithography (SLA) 3D printing, immobilises laccase sourced from Trametes Versicolor within a poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate hydrogel. We show that SLA printing is a sustainable method for enzyme entrapment under mild conditions, and measure the stability of the system when exposed to extremes of pH and temperature in comparison to free laccase. When tested for its drug removal capacity, the 3D printed device substantially degraded two dissolved drugs on the European water pollution watch list. When configured in the shape of a torus, the device effectively removed 95% of diclofenac and ethinylestradiol from aqueous solution within 24 and 2 h, respectively, more efficiently than free enzyme. Being customizable and reusable, these 3D printed devices could help to efficiently tackle the world's water pollution crisis, in a flexible, easily scalable, and cost-efficient manner.

Application of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers in the Analysis of Waters and Wastewaters.

The increase of the global population and shortage of renewable water resources urges the development of possible remedies to improve the quality and reusability of waste and contaminated water supplies. Different water pollutants, such as heavy metals, dyes, pesticides, endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), and pharmaceuticals, are produced through continuous technical and industrial developments that are emerging with the increasing population. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) represent a class of synthetic receptors that can be produced from different types of polymerization reactions between a target template and functional monomer(s), having functional groups specifically interacting with the template; such interactions can be tailored according to the purpose of designing the polymer and based on the nature of the target compounds. The removal of the template using suitable knocking out agents renders a recognition cavity that can specifically rebind to the target template which is the main mechanism of the applicability of MIPs in electrochemical sensors and as solid phase extraction sorbents. MIPs have unique properties in terms of stability, selectivity, and resistance to acids and bases besides being of low cost and simple to prepare; thus, they are excellent materials to be used for water analysis. The current review represents the different applications of MIPs in the past five years for the detection of different classes of water and wastewater contaminants and possible approaches for future applications.

Chlorine taste can increase simulated exposure to both fecal contamination and disinfection byproducts in water supplies

Expanding drinking water chlorination could substantially reduce the burden of disease in low- and middle-income countries, but the taste of chlorinated water often impedes adoption. We developed a Monte Carlo simulation to estimate the effect of people's choice to accept or reject drinking water based on chlorine taste and their subsequent exposure to E. coli and trihalomethanes, a class of disinfection byproduct (DBP). The simulation used empirical data from Dhaka, Bangladesh, a megacity with endemic waterborne disease. We drew on published taste acceptability thresholds from Dhaka residents, measured residual chlorine and thermotolerant E. coli inactivation following the addition of six chlorine doses (0.25–3.0 mg/L as Cl2) to untreated piped water samples from 100 locations, and analyzed trihalomethane formation in 54 samples. A dose of 0.5 mg/L, 75% lower than the 2 mg/L dose typically recommended for household chlorination of low-turbidity waters, minimized overall exposure to E. coli. Doses of 1–2 mg/L maximized overall exposure to trihalomethanes. Accounting for chlorine taste aversion indicates that microbiological exposure increases and DBP exposure decreases above certain doses as a higher proportion of people reject chlorinated water in favor of untreated water. Taken together with findings from other modeling analyses, empirical studies, and field trials, our results suggest that taste acceptability should be a critical consideration in establishing chlorination dosing guidelines. Particularly when chlorination is first implemented in water supplies with low chlorine demand, lower doses than those generally recommended for household water treatment can help avoid taste-related objections while still meaningfully reducing contaminant exposure.

Synthesis of Magnetic Pomegranate Biochar Coupled with Yeast As a Novel Metal Adsorbent

Water is the crucial resource for the life on Earth. The water pollution caused by heavy metal has been greatly impacted human health. The removal of heavy metal contaminants in water supply poses a major problem for scientists over the past few decades. Activated carbon is often used as an adsorbent of heavy metals, however the activated carbon is make from charcoal which requires the pyrolysis of wood. Our study used pomegranate peel as an alternative ecofriendly resource for making an effective adsorbent. Biochar amendment on water filtration proves to be a viable option. The surface of pomegranate peel biochar was modified with magnetic nanop-Fe3O4 and baker’s yeast in order to enhance its adsorptive capacity for heavy metals (Pb2+, Cd2+, Cu2+, and As2+) in water as well as improve its reusability. The structure of composite was characterized by using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), Powder X-Ray Diffraction (P-XRD), and Accelerated Surface Area and Porosimetry System (ASAP). Batch adsorption experiments will be conducted to study the effects of pH, temperature, contact time, adsorbent dosage, and interfering species on heavy metal adsorption.

Prediction of lead concentration in random daytime (RDT) samples of high rise buildings by coupled 3D-1D modeling

The drinking water supply system in many high rise buildings in densely populated cities consists of a complex labyrinth of copper pipes and brass fixtures (valves, meters, couplings). Lead contamination in these non-lead pipe systems can occur due to the presence of lead-soldered connections, and lead containing brass fixtures. The prediction of lead concentration characteristics of random daytime (RDT) samples in these high rise buildings has hitherto not been studied. The stochastic variation of lead concentration of RDT samples is studied by a coupling of 3-D and 1-D models and the Monte-Carlo Method. A 3-dimensional CFD model based on an equilibrium concentration (E0) approach is used to simulate the leaching process from different lead sources. With the calibrated E0 for different materials obtained from leaching experiments, the lead source strengths of leaded components in a water supply chain can be predicted by the 3D model as a function of stagnation time. Using the predicted distributed lead sources, the transport and mixing of lead in the turbulent pipe flow can be accurately simulated by a 1D advection–diffusion model. Using the Monte-Carlo method, a large number of simulations of consumer tap water Pb concentrations is performed using randomly sampled stagnation time, inter-use time, and flushing time. The computations are performed for two representative prototypes: (i) a full scale lead contaminated water supply chain; and (ii) a chain with only clean pipes and brass fixtures. The effect of stagnation time and flushing time before water use on tap Pb levels are investigated. The predicted range and distribution of RDT sample concentrations are validated by a three-year field data set (2017–2020) of the Hong Kong Water Supplies Department.

The Female Burden Visualized: Cinematic Representation of Women during Epidemics

The Female Burden Visualized: Cinematic Representation of Women during Epidemics

Machine Learning Classification Algorithms for Predicting Karenia brevis Blooms on the West Florida Shelf

Harmful algal blooms (HABs), events that kill fish, impact human health in multiple ways, and contaminate water supplies, have increased in frequency, magnitude, and impacts in numerous marine and freshwaters around the world. Blooms of the toxic dinoflagellate Karenia brevis have resulted in thousands of tons of dead fish, deaths to many other marine organisms, numerous respiratory-related hospitalizations, and tens to hundreds of millions of dollars in economic damage along the West Florida coast in recent years. Four types of machine learning algorithms, Support Vector Machine (SVM), Relevance Vector Machine (RVM), Naïve Bayes classifier (NB), and Artificial Neural Network (ANN), were developed and compared in their ability to predict these blooms. Comparing the 21 year monitoring dataset of K. brevis abundance, RVM and NB were found to have better skills in bloom prediction than the other two approaches. The importance of upwelling-favorable northerly winds in increasing K. brevis probability, and of onshore westerly winds in preventing blooms from dispersing offshore, were quantified using RVM, and all models were used to explore the importance of large river flows and the nutrients they supply in regulating blooms. These models provide new tools for management of these devastating algal blooms.

Hepatitis E in Pakistan

In Pakistan, sporadic cases of hepatitis E occur throughout the year. However, small outbreaks and epidemics of hepatitis E have been reported from the cities of Peshawar, Mardan, Abbottabad, Rawalpindi-Islamabad, Sargodha, Multan, Hyderabad, Quetta and Karachi. A large epidemic of hepatitis E occurred in one of the army garrisons at Lahore in early 1995, when more than 600 cases were treated as inpatients. Wherever epidemiological investigations have been carried out, the cause of the outbreak has always been found to be contamination of water supplies with sewage. This paper considers the epidemiology, diagnosis, clinical features, treatment, prevention and control of hepatitis E in Pakistan

Mycobacterium fortuitum abortion in a sow

Two aborted Chester White pig fetuses were presented to a veterinary diagnostic laboratory in Illinois. Postmortem examination identified no gross abnormalities. Histologic evaluation revealed multifocal necrosis of chorionic epithelial cells, coalescing areas of mineralization in the placenta, and focal accumulations of viable and degenerate neutrophils in the lung. Intra- and extracellular acid-fast bacilli were identified in the lesions in both the placenta and lungs. Bacterial culture of stomach contents yielded heavy growth of Mycobacterium fortuitum, a rapidly growing nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM), which was further confirmed through whole-genome sequencing. NTM are opportunistic pathogens commonly found in the soil and in contaminated water supplies. In animals, M. fortuitum is typically introduced through cutaneous wounds leading to infections limited to the skin, with systemic infection being uncommon. To our knowledge, abortion caused by M. fortuitum has not been reported previously.

Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis in wild birds: A One Health perspective.

Cryptosporidium is one of the most important parasitic protozoa that can be transmitted through food and water contamination. With the increasing report of Cryptosporidium infections in wild birds, especially in herbivorous waterfowl, concerns have been raised for oocyst contamination of water and food supplies, which in turn can cause human and domestic animal infections in areas neighboring wild birds' habitats. This review discusses the epidemiology, species, and genotypes distribution of Cryptosporidium in wild birds around the world. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium in wild birds was calculated as 3.96% (1945/49129), with 6 Cryptosporidium species (C. andersoni, C. parvum, C. meleagridis, C. avium, C. baileyi, and C. galli) and 5 genotypes (Goose genotype I, Goose genotype II, Avian genotype I, Avian genotype III, and Avian genotype VI) reported. As wild birds mainly live in the wild, control method for the Cryptosporidium infection in wild birds is still lacking, which increases the probability of disease transmission from wild birds to humans. The main purpose of this review is to highlight the Cryptosporidium infection in wild birds and its transmission, associated risk factors, and their prevention, illustrating the necessity of multidisciplinary approaches toward screening and control of Cryptosporidium infections.

Occurrence of 17α-ethinylestradiol in Paranoá Lake watershed (Brasília, Brazil): sewage, freshwater and treated water

Emerging contaminants such as 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2) can be discharged from sewage systems and contaminate water supplies. Paranoá Lake is a strategic water reservoir in Brasília (Brazil) that receives treated sewage from sewage treatment plants (STPs) and has recently become a water supply. This study monitored EE2 residues in different matrices from Paranoá Lake watershed using the ELISA method. This monitoring was performed together with the local environmental agency in two periods. EE2 was detected in all sewage samples showing that this residue is continually being discharged into the lake. However, EE2 was found in only one freshwater sample (0.07 ng L-1), which is below the predicted no-effect concentration considered as a risk for aquatic animals. EE2 was not detected in treated water. Nevertheless, the increased use of freshwater as a water supply signals the need for continuous EE2 monitoring in the lake.