Consumer protection in India has changed significantly over the last 40 years. It has gradually moved from focusing mainly on providing legal rights to reforming law to creating awareness among the public. This article looks up government-led initiatives and strategies that evolved to empower consumers from 1986 to 2025. The paper emphasizes that the Consumer Protection Act, 1986, was instrumental in providing legal rights to the consumers and how awareness was created through various schemes like Jago Grahak Jago, Grahak Suvidha Kendras, and National Consumer Helpline to different social and linguistic groups. The government, through the introduction of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019, and the setting up of the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA), has been focusing more on regulating issues faced by consumers due to the online trade, privacy in the digital world, and false advertisements. Recent research also reveals that there is a stronger drive to connect consumer education with digital platforms and community-based programs. However, the challenges of regional disparities, digital illiteracy, and insufficient formal consumer education is still there and obstruct the level of awareness which is fairly distributed. The study argues that empowerment of consumers through legislation, education, and technology is vital in securing this empowerment in a rapidly changing market environment in India.

This article examines the concept of consumer empowerment as a strategy for co-creating value in non-governmental organizations (NGOs). These organizations play an important role in contemporary society. They often address social, economic, and environmental challenges that neither government institutions nor the private sector are able to overcome effectively. Due to their unique position, NGOs are able to mobilize communities, leverage specialized skills, and initiate changes that have a long-term impact. NGOs make a particularly important contribution to solving problems that require community-based, people-oriented solutions. The authors emphasize that the role of these organizations is becoming increasingly important where other actors are unable to meet the needs of society. Because their activities are based on a social mission and a focus on the public good, NGOs are becoming important drivers of social innovation and the strengthening of civil society. Although consumer empowerment and co-creation of value are widely discussed in academic literature and widely used in business, their application in the NGO sector remains fragmented and requires deeper theoretical justification. With this in mind, this article aims to broaden the understanding of how empowerment can strengthen stakeholder participation, organizational transparency, trust, and social value creation.Classic studies on consumer empowerment have shown that by giving consumers more power to make decisions or contribute to service development, organizations encourage greater motivation and loyalty. In a business context, empowered consumers become not only service recipients but also sources of innovation, actively participating in value creation processes. This logic has gradually been transferred to the NGO sector, where consumers (community members, volunteers, donors, service recipients) can contribute not only to the shaping of services, but also to the implementation of the organization's mission, the resolution of social problems, or the initiation of innovations.Digitization has further strengthened the importance of empowerment. Digital platforms, social networks, and artificial intelligence solutions provide users with new opportunities for engagement, allowing them to exchange information more quickly, provide feedback, participate in consultations, and have a real impact on organizational decisions. Such tools increase transparency and become an important communication network through which NGOs can strengthen their reputation, accountability, and community trust.Based on a review of the literature, the article identifies four dimensions of consumer empowerment that are particularly relevant in the context of NGOs: informational, participatory, psychological, and technological. The informational dimension emphasizes that transparent, understandable, and accessible information is the basis of empowerment. Only informed consumers can make informed decisions, critically evaluate the activities of organizations, and actively participate in co-creation. The participation dimension reveals that empowerment is not only about receiving services, but also about the opportunity to participate in the development of decisions, services, or organizational strategies. Participation can take the form of consultation, cooperation, volunteering, or involvement in decision-making processes. The psychological dimension emphasizes internal user attitudes, such as self-confidence, a sense of competence, and perceived influence. Users who feel that their involvement is meaningful and has an impact tend to cooperate more actively, remain loyal and involved for longer. The technological dimension highlights the ability of digital tools to expand forms of empowerment, allowing NGOs to reach wider audiences, gather insights in real time, and create interactive co-creation practices.In order to integrate these four dimensions into a coherent system of user empowerment, the article draws on the DART model, which encompasses dialogue, access, risk sharing, and transparency. Dialogue enables the creation of bilateral relationships, access provides users with the necessary information and resources, risk sharing strengthens partnerships, and transparency increases trust. The conceptual framework proposed in the article explains how the DART model acts as an intermediary mechanism, linking the four dimensions of empowerment with the final outcomes: greater stakeholder satisfaction, organizational innovation, stronger community cohesion, and a stronger NGO reputation.In summary, the article reveals that consumer empowerment in the NGO sector is a complex phenomenon that takes on both managerial and social characteristics. However, a review of the literature reveals a clear gap in research that systematically analyzes how different dimensions of empowerment affect co-creation processes in NGO activities. Therefore, further research is needed to understand the specific contexts of NGOs in which empowerment can contribute most to the creation of social value and the sustainable development of organizations.

The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionized digital marketing by enabling real-time, data-driven personalization of consumer experiences. This study investigates how algorithmic personalization influences consumer behavior, trust, and purchasing intent through a comprehensive analysis of secondary data from scholarly literature, industry reports, and policy documents spanning 2015 to 2025. The research adopts a descriptive and analytical approach based on the Stimulus–Organism–Response (S–O–R) framework, wherein AI personalization acts as the stimulus, consumer trust and satisfaction function as mediating organismic states, and purchase intention and loyalty represent the behavioral responses. Findings from the synthesis of existing evidence reveal that AI-driven personalization significantly enhances consumer engagement, satisfaction, and purchase likelihood by improving perceived relevance and convenience. However, these benefits are conditional upon the presence of transparency, ethical data use, and consumer control. The study highlights the growing importance of trust as the central mediator linking personalization to purchasing outcomes, noting that excessive or opaque personalization may trigger privacy concerns, perceived manipulation, and resistance. Demographic and psychographic factors—such as age, digital literacy, and privacy orientation—further moderate consumer responses, emphasizing the need for adaptive personalization strategies tailored to user readiness and comfort. The research also underscores the necessity for robust governance mechanisms to ensure responsible AI deployment. Ethical and policy frameworks, including Explainable AI (XAI), algorithmic transparency standards, and consumer consent protocols, are essential for maintaining trust and regulatory compliance. Managerial implications stress the integration of AI personalization as a strategic capability rather than a technical add-on, advocating for cross-functional collaboration between marketers, technologists, and ethicists. On the policy front, the study calls for alignment with India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act (2023) and NITI Aayog’s Responsible AI initiatives to promote fairness, accountability, and consumer empowerment

The incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI) into consumer markets initiates a genuine paradigmatic shift, revealing a tense dialectic between the empowerment of consumers and the emergence of unprecedented legal and ethical threats. The aim of the article is to provide a systematized analysis of this duality, covering both the positive effects of AI deployment (hyperpersonalization, preventive anti-fraud measures, online dispute resolution) and the risks inherent in the technology—algorithmic bias, manipulative practices, and the undermining of decisional autonomy. The methodological framework relies on a systematic review of scholarly and regulatory literature and a comparative legal analysis of key European Union instruments—the Artificial Intelligence Act (EU AI Act) and the new Product Liability Directive (PLD). The findings indicate that AI provides transformative tools for enhancing the efficiency and accessibility of consumer protection mechanisms; at the same time, the very same technological capabilities generate systemic risks of nonobjectivity and dilute the informed nature of decision making. The new European regulation establishes an advanced risk-based architecture, rethinking the allocation of responsibility and imposing preventive obligations on providers of AI systems, while simultaneously complicating enforcement. In conclusion, the paper substantiates the need for a balanced course that combines technological safeguards, proactive regulatory oversight, and the development of consumer digital literacy for the harmonious development of the digital economy. The presented conclusions are addressed to legal scholars, regulators, developers, and compliance professionals involved in AI governance.

Exploring consumer education and empowerment as a pathway to brand reputation and brand engagement in sustainable digital marketing

The rapid advancement of digital technology has facilitated the convergence of commerce and social media, transforming patterns of consumer behaviour worldwide. In China, this transformation has given rise to the so-called “Her economy,” reflecting women’s growing purchasing power and influence in shaping market trends. This study systematically reviews the literature on the influence of social media on women’s consumption by applying the PRISMA framework to identify, screen, and select relevant studies. A total of 43 articles published between 2020 and 2025 were examined through thematic analysis to synthesise key findings. The review shows that social media provides women with new spaces for self-expression, product evaluation, and more informed decision-making, thereby contributing to consumer empowerment. At the same time, however, women remain subject to gendered marketing strategies that risk reinforcing stereotypes and alienating their diverse needs and desires. Findings further indicate that the dynamics of women’s consumption in China are shaped by the interplay between digital platforms, consumer agency, and commercial practices, which reflects both empowerment and constraint. Despite these insights, current studies display limited engagement with post-feminist perspectives that could illuminate how gender norms continue to influence digital consumption. Methodologically, most research relies heavily on self-reported data, overlooking digital traces that capture consumers’ immediate responses to social media content. Future studies should therefore integrate survey methods with digital content analysis to provide a more comprehensive understanding of women’s consumption patterns in the digital era.

Purpose The study develops and tests a framework to investigate the artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots’ communication qualities and human-like characteristics on perceived empathy, which translates into service authenticity and empowerment, and eventually brand preference. Design/methodology/approach In study 1, a combined Importance–Performance Map Analysis (IPMA) and fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) was used to analyse the data. Study 2 is a follow-up qualitative study using in-depth interviews. Findings The findings reveal that perceived anthropomorphism and perceived intelligence are the two strongest predictors of perceived empathy. Perceived empathy positively influences service authenticity and consumer empowerment. The cIPMA results further highlight a performance gap in perceived consumer empowerment and empathy. The fsQCA revealed five distinct configurations that foster chatbot empathy. The qualitative findings validate the quantitative results and reveal additional themes that warrant consideration. Originality/value This study provides insight into how key AI chatbot attributes influence brand preference, advancing our understanding of the consumer behaviour mechanisms that drive perceived empathy and overall interaction effectiveness in human–AI communication.

The integration of the Internet of Things (IoT) into everyday life from connected appliances, smart wearables, to smart city infrastructure, generates an influx of personal and behavioral data. Although these technologies have the potential to enable efficient, personalized and thriving economies, they in turn raise challenging privacy issues that threaten user trust and inhibit long-term adoption. In the United States, the rapid pace of IOT innovation has exceeded the development of standard privacy protections, leaving a disintegration of technical defenses, corporate practices, and regulatory guidance. Analysis indicates that numerous IoT products entering the U.S. market embed broad data collection capabilities into their core functionality, often operating in ways that exceed the scope disclosed to end users. Controls for restricting or limiting such data flows are often hidden within complex settings or completely absent, while software maintenance practices leave known vulnerabilities unaddressed for extended periods for low-cost devices. This environment is reinforced by an uneven regulatory landscape in which manufacturers are not faced with unified national requirements for privacy-by-design or security hardening. Hence, this paper critically examines analysis of these privacy issues by analyzing the regulatory gaps, technical deficiencies and user-facing constraints that are driving IoT proliferation in the United States. It also discusses ways in which secure user adoption can be encouraged, ranging from technical protections to regulatory reforms and consumer empowerment, to highlight the pathways through which IoT can achieve its transformative potential without sacrificing user confidence or fundamental rights.

This research aims to analyze the forms of legal protection for consumers in the case of illegal cosmetic circulation in the Traditional Market of Moluo Village, Kwandang District, North Gorontalo Regency, and to examine the roles of the Health Department and the Gorontalo Food and Drug Supervisory Agency (BBPOM) in supervising and guiding business actors. The research method used is empirical legal research with a non-doctrinal qualitative approach, thru interviews with sellers, consumers, and supervisory authorities, as well as field observations and document studies. The research results show that the majority of vendors in the market already understand the importance of a distribution permit from BPOM and choose to sell legal products, although in practice illegal cosmetics are still found due to high consumer demand for instant results. The main obstacle lies in consumers who are often aware of the dangers of illegal cosmetics but still purchase them. BPOM Gorontalo implements legal protection thru two channels: preventive measures such as socialization, education, and routine inspections, and repressive measures such as legal action in accordance with Article 435 of Law Number 17 of 2023 concerning Health. The implications of this research confirm the need for more comprehensive legal protection strategies with cross-agency collaboration, increased public legal literacy, and consumer empowerment to make them more critical in product selection.

Consumer empowerment and disempowerment play key roles in marketplace inclusion and exclusion, yet there is a lack of robust understanding of how they are simultaneously experienced within consumer contexts. In this paper, we examine their coexistence in the context of reusable menstrual products (e.g., menstrual cups and period underwear). We build on work conceptualizing these consumer products as feminist technologies, which are tools and knowledge that provide opportunities for women’s empowerment by deconstructing, through their use, patriarchal systems. Interestingly, and pertinent to our goal of unpacking a key factor in marketplace inclusion and exclusion, feminist technologies can simultaneously liberate and constrain, can empower different consumers in different ways, and can have unintended negative consequences for consumers. Using a mixed-method approach, we conducted four studies, including three online surveys with different populations of participants, and a set of semi-structured interviews using conventional and reusable menstrual products as stimuli. We find that consumers experience empowerment and disempowerment as trajectories—compelling directions of possibility for individual empowerment or disempowerment and collective action. As consumers encounter these competing trajectories, they experience tension between them. We identify four sites of tension: the embodied individual experience of managing menstrual processes, interactions with others, encounters with the marketplace, and broader societal engagement. Our findings articulate the entangled coexistence of empowerment and disempowerment, showing that they are inherently intertwined and play a complex role in supporting or inhibiting inclusion. Theoretical implications are discussed.

The intersection of social media and luxury branding presents a paradox: luxury thrives on exclusivity, while digital platforms are designed for visibility and participation. This narrative literature review synthesises studies published between 2010 and 2025 to examine how luxury brands navigate this paradox. Three key domains are explored: the role of social media in shaping brand equity, the evolving mechanisms of consumer engagement, and the digital challenges unique to the luxury sector. The review finds that while social media strengthens brand image through symbolic storytelling and aesthetic immersion, it has a more limited role in building brand awareness. Personalisation and co-creation strengthen emotional bonds and loyalty, though overuse risks prestige dilution. Technological innovations such as AR, VR, and AI offer new experiential frontiers but require alignment with the brand’s symbolic capital. This study contributes a multidimensional framework for understanding digital luxury branding and highlights managerial imperatives for balancing visibility with exclusivity. Future research is urged to explore generational and cultural variances, integrate stronger theoretical foundations, and address the tension between consumer empowerment and brand control in increasingly participatory environments.

This paper explores the dual role of Machine Learning (ML) in predicting consumer behavior within e-commerce. ML technologies have driven innovation by enabling personalized recommendations, targeted marketing, dynamic pricing, inventory optimization, and fraud detection—enhancing both customer experience and operational efficiency. At the same time, these advancements raise critical ethical concerns, including privacy invasion, manipulation of consumer choices, algorithmic bias, and lack of transparency. As a Commentary / Opinion Article, this work examines how these risks intersect with the growing reliance on predictive algorithms in digital marketplaces. It argues that while ML offers immense opportunities for growth and innovation, its implementation must be guided by robust ethical frameworks and regulatory oversight. The discussion emphasizes responsible data use, algorithmic transparency, and consumer empowerment to ensure that ML remains a tool for innovation rather than exploitation.

The existing legal framework for consumer protection in Indonesia has not been able to respond adaptively and integratively to the challenges of the digital economy era, including cross-border issues, algorithm governance, and consumer empowerment, resulting in a gap between regulation and actual protection needs. To develop a legal consumerism model that integrates adaptive regulation, technology-based law enforcement, and consumer empowerment to reconstruct Indonesia’s consumer protection law so that it is responsive to the dynamics of the digital market and ASEAN regional integration. This study employs a normative–conceptual approach integrating doctrinal legal analysis, comparative jurisdiction review, and conceptual exploration of literature, policies, and best practices to qualitatively design an integrative, adaptive, and participatory legal consumerism model that reconstructs consumer protection law in response to digital-era and regional market integration challenges. This research concludes that the Legal Consumerism model offers a transformative framework for reconstructing consumer protection law in Indonesia by integrating adaptive legal norms, technology-based enforcement, and consumer empowerment into a single, coherent system. Philosophically anchored in distributive and corrective justice, ontologically recognizing consumers as active legal subjects, and teleologically oriented toward a sustainable digital market ecosystem, the model bridges the normative–empirical gap that has long hindered effective protection. By synthesizing lessons from Indonesia, Thailand, and ASEAN’s regional frameworks, this concept not only addresses structural weaknesses in current regulations but also anticipates emerging risks from algorithmic pricing, cross-border transactions, and digital data governance, thereby positioning consumer protection as both a legal safeguard and a driver of trust in the modern economy.

As India rapidly embraces digital technologies, concerns surrounding data privacy and the protection of personal information have become increasingly significant. This study explores the progress of digital privacy laws in India and assesses consumer perceptions and awareness among Indian online users regarding data protection. With the proliferation of internet usage, particularly through social media, digital banking, and mobile applications, individuals are frequently exposed to risks such as impersonation, phishing, romance scams, and data breaches. Notwithstanding the introduction of critical legislative frameworks—including the Information Technology Act (2000), its 2008 amendment, and the Digital Personal Data Protection Act (2023)—public understanding and engagement with these laws remain restricted. To evaluate user awareness, a structured online survey was conducted with 153 respondents from diverse demographic backgrounds. Findings reveal that over 70% of respondents lacked awareness of existing data privacy laws, frequently consented to terms without understanding, and showed uncertainty about their rights and remedies. The study also categorizes key types of cybercrimes prevalent in India and contextualizes them within the broader policy landscape. Challenges such as low digital literacy, complex consent mechanisms, limited outreach, and government surveillance concerns are also addressed. This paper contributes by tracing India’s legislative progress on data privacy, identifying user-level gaps, and offering actionable recommendations to enhance awareness, promote informed consent, and strengthen the digital ecosystem. It concludes by emphasizing the need for a multi-stakeholder approach involving government, industry, and civil society to create a privacy-aware and digitally resilient population. Future research directions are also proposed, focusing on mechanisms for improving transparency, regulatory adaptation, and consumer empowerment in the digital age.

The primary goal of this study is to develop and validate a measurement tool that assesses consumers' online complaint behavior. The study employed a mixed-methods approach, beginning with in-depth interviews of eight (8) e-commerce users, which resulted in the formulation of 36 item statements capturing the different motivations behind online complaints. Afterwards, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted on a sufficiently large sample (n=250), revealing a three-factor structure: Emotionally Driven Complaining, Empowered and Advocacy-Based Complaining, and Complaint Resolution Expectations. In addition, the final model (Model 3), as confirmed by conducting Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), shows strong fit indices, confirming the robustness of the three-factor structure and strong convergent validity. Overall, the results revealed that the scale created is psychometrically valid and effectively captures the complexities of online complaint behavior. The validated instrument is a valuable tool for educators, researchers, and practitioners who aim to understand the motivations behind online complaints. Moreover, this research contributes to achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) by promoting consumer empowerment, accountability, and transparency in digital marketplaces. Future studies should investigate the reliability of the scale in measuring across various demographic groups and its ability to predict customer loyalty and brand perception.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/soc/0723/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

This article offers a critical analysis of Spain’s Draft Law on Sustainable Consumption, which transposes EU Directives 2024/825 and 2024/1799 aimed at consumer empowerment and the right to repair. Through a partial and cross-cutting reform of the Consolidated Consumer Protection Act, the Unfair Competition Law, and the General Law on Advertising, the legislator introduces: enhanced pre-contractual and environmental information duties, advertising restrictions against greenwashing and fear-based persuasion, post-warranty repair mechanisms, and structural measures such as the European Repair Platform and the standardised Repair Information Form. The study assesses the internal legal coherence, the legislative technique, the constitutional and jurisdictional challenges of the multilevel governance model and proposes de lege ferenda improvements toward a systematic and durable codification of ecological consumer law in Spain.

The global digital economy has undergone significant transformations especially with the rise of mobile commerce in emerging markets like South Africa. Digital transactions have become more accessible through the increasing adoption of smartphones and numerous mobile payment solutions. However, this transition has come with challenges, especially in developing economies like South Africa. Therefore, digital literacy remains a crucial factor in consumer participation in the digital economy. The digital divide in South Africa in addition to cyber security concerns and limited digital skills hamper consumers from engaging with online platforms confidently. These challenges need to be addressed to achieve inclusive economic growth. This study explores the impact of digital literacy on mobile commerce adoption in South Africa and introduces a Digital Literacy Checklist for mobile commerce as a practical tool to assess and enhance consumer readiness. Embedded in Digital Inclusion Theory and Consumer Empowerment Theory, this study employs a qualitative approach by integrating interviews and a content analysis to analyze how consumers interact with digital platforms. Interviews were conducted with electronic commerce professionals to understand the digital literacy challenges and opportunities. In addition, policy documents, digital literacy training material and reports were reviewed to assess the current frameworks and strategies as well as identify gaps in consumer preparedness. Findings suggest that digital literacy enhances consumer confidence in online transactions, the ability to identify fraudulent scams and the awareness of mobile payment security features. The key barriers to mobile commerce adoption were limited digital skills, trust and security concerns and socio-economic disparities. Findings also suggest that higher levels of digital literacy correlate with increased confidence in online shopping, mobile payments and financial transactions. This in turn leads to a more inclusive and competitive digital economy. This study contributes to the discourse on digital transformation by highlighting strategies to improve digital literacy. In turn, business innovation, economic inclusion and sustainable growth in mobile commerce’s eco-systems are driven. Businesses, policy makers and educators can make use of these insights to create targeted interventions that are able to empower consumers to enhance resilience in the digital economy.

Purpose This paper elucidated how recommendation agents (RAs) in online retailing elicit a counteractive perception among consumers from a perspective of control, which results in their intent to avoid RA recommendations. For marketers who attempt to reduce consumers’ negative responses in the context of RAs, the paper examined whether an RA empowered by algorithmic transparency would confer an effective solution. Design/methodology/approach One pilot test and two studies of scenario-based experiments were conducted to capture the proposed effect. Findings The findings support that sense of control (SOC) and avoidance intention (AV) are negatively related, where privacy concern (PC) mediates the relationship. Transparency empowerment exerts a detrimental effect on leveraging consumers’ SOC. The assertion that an increased SOC eliminates consumer avoidance is found to be substantially stronger in the absence of transparency. Research limitations/implications The research consolidates the compensatory control theory (CCT) and adds a novel perspective on the relationship between one’s control and PC, which has yet to be adequately addressed. It enriches empowerment literature by revealing that algorithm transparency would not significantly influence consumers’ avoidance of RAs’ recommendations, whereas non-transparent RAs would attenuate such impact. Practical implications This study entails significant implications for technicians and marketers, emphasizing the need to promote feelings of control through RAs while also highlighting the necessity to rethink the interpretability and transparency attributes in RAs. Originality/value This research contributes to the literature on human–technology interaction, documents key theoretical and managerial implications, and sheds light on the counterintuitive effects that span the literature on individual control and consumer empowerment.

BackgroundThe National Health Service (NHS) faces increasing strain. Concurrently, demand for health information, consumer empowerment, and health awareness continues to grow. These trends, coupled with the ubiquity of smartphones and internet access, are positioning online symptom checkers (OSCs) as promising tools for preliminary diagnosis and triage. While there is increasing data on the demographics, motivations, and perspectives of current and potential users of OSCs globally, no study has yet quantified or ranked the various factors associated with the use of OSCs in the United Kingdom.ObjectiveThis study aimed to assess key trends and user perceptions on the usability and effectiveness of OSC in the United Kingdom. We also sought to identify concerns related to the privacy, security, and accuracy of OSCs and to quantify the weight of these various factors on the use of OSCs.MethodsA cross-sectional survey of UK adults was conducted using an electronic questionnaire. A convenience sample was recruited between February and March 2024 through web-based platforms and personal networks. The survey included questions on awareness, use, perceptions, and concerns regarding OSCs, as well as respondents’ demographics. Responses were pseudo-anonymized and analyzed using univariable and multivariable logistic regression models to assess relationships between demographic factors; perceived usability, reliability, and risks; and OSC use.ResultsThe survey collected responses from 634 participants. The majority (543/634, 85.7%) had used OSCs, primarily the NHS 111 service (498/634, 78.6%). Younger age (<46 years old), being female (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.79, 95% CI 1.05‐3.06), and having children (aOR 3.19, 95% CI 1.56‐6.51) were associated with higher odds of using OSCs. Key motivations for using OSCs included understanding symptoms (501/634, 79.0%) and determining the need for medical care (491/634, 77.4%). Key concerns negatively impacting use related to privacy (aOR 0.58, 95% CI 0.35-0.97) and fear of replacing traditional, face-to-face consultations (aOR 0.47, 95% CI 0.26‐0.87). The most important factor found to affect the decision to use OSCs was the perceived ease of use (aOR 8.17, 95% CI 4.25-15.71), followed by the perceived helpfulness in decision-making (aOR 2.96, 95% CI 1.62‐5.42), and respondents’ trust in their diagnostic accuracy (aOR 2.24, 95% CI 1.32‐3.79).ConclusionsOSCs are widely used in the United Kingdom, particularly the NHS 111 service, driven primarily by ease of use and perceived helpfulness in decision support. However, privacy and security concerns, as well as fears of OSCs replacing traditional consultations, pose significant barriers. Addressing these concerns is crucial for enhancing user trust and maximizing the benefits of OSCs in supporting self-care and improving health care efficiency.

AI-powered personalized recommendations and pricing: Moderating effects of ethical AI and consumer empowerment