Construction Of New Roads Research Articles

CHARLES ALMA BAKER: PENGLIBATAN DALAM PERLUASAN EKONOMI TANAH MELAYU DAN KONFLIK DENGAN PENTADBIRAN BRITISH

This article intends to examine the role played by Charles Alma Baker, a New Zealander, in developing the Malay States during the period of the Federated Malay States, from the late 1890s to the early 20th century. It also analyses the administrative hurdles faced by him in carrying out his work. Alma Baker contributed directly to the economy by investing his capital in tin mines and rubber plantations. He carried out surveys and supervised construction of new roads to service the rapid expansion of commercial agriculture and tin mining in the FMS. Although he was successful to a certain extent, there were nevertheless many occassions when he became the victim of bureaucratic harassment at the hands of the Land Officers, Residents, Resident-General and High Commissioners.

Licensing for dam construction and operation ‐ Practical decision support developed and improved over 100 years

During the last 100 years some 2500 dams have been built in Norway either related to irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply, or hydropower development projects, the latter being the dominant. A legal and regulatory system has been developed and amended to serve the ever changing policies and needs of a country that during the last century has been transformed from one of the poorest in Europe into one of the richest in the world. The needs and interest of the affected local population and their rightful share of the benefits of the hydropower development project have been taken care of in various ways over the years, from providing new houses and electricity, to the construction of new roads and even direct payments. The dams normally constructed in relation to these projects are monumental structures built to last for a very long time, some would say forever. In order to avoid dambreaks and thereby assure public safety, a legal framework securing appropriate operational rules, compliance with technical requirements and periodic inspections of the dams is an absolute necessity. A transparent government licensing process, involving all public and other stakeholders, has all the time been considered of crucial importance in order to achieve general acceptance of a project. The process includes comprehensive impact studies on environmental and social issues, as well as appropriate technical and political issues related to the eventual implementation of the project. Granting of a license should be based on a clear and unambiguous conclusion that the total benefits of the project exceed the negative impacts. The license includes explicit conditions stating a set of operating rules and other precautions that assure technical safety and environmental sustainability. All conditions is subject to future revisions.

Will dragonblood survive the next period of climate change? Current and future potential distribution of Dracaena cinnabari (Socotra, Yemen)

The potential impact of climate change on Dracaena cinnabari, a spectacular relict of the Mio-Pliocene Laurasian subtropical forest in Socotra (Yemen), was analysed. Current distribution, abundance and vertical structure of D. cinnabari populations were assessed with 74 plots in nine remnant areas. A deterministic regression tree analysis model was used to examine environmental variables related to the current species distribution. Using this model, a current potential map and a predicted potential map for the ∼2080 climatic scenario were generated. D. cinnabari has an altitudinal range from 323 to 1483 m a.s.l., with a mean annual temperature of 19.8–28.6 °C and an annual precipitation of 207–569 mm. The current distribution and abundance of D. cinnabari is correlated to three factors: moisture index (i.e. the ratio between the annual precipitation and potential evapotranspiration), mean annual temperature and slope. According to this model, D. cinnabari occupies only 5% of its current potential habitat. This potential habitat is expected to be reduced with 45% by 2080 because of a predicted increased aridity. Only two out of the nine remnant areas should be considered as potential refugia. The boundaries of the strictly protected Skund Nature Sanctuary, where no (road) infrastructure is allowed, should be extended to include both areas. The construction of new roads leading towards these areas, thereby increasing permanent settlements and grazing pressure, should also be discouraged.

The relationship between the characteristics of transportation energy consumption and urban form

In this paper, we analyze the relationship between the characteristics of transportation energy consumption and urban form elements that were actively argued along with Environmentally Sound and Sustainable Development (ESSD). This paper can be divided into two parts: an examination of the theories and a practical analysis of domestic, small-, and medium-sized cities. Firstly, in the examination of theories, we surveyed the arguments about the sustainable urban form. Secondly, we made some hypotheses about the relationships between transportation energy consumption, city size, density, and center distribution pattern. Thirdly, we tested those hypotheses and examined the suitability of policies for each alternative for small- and medium-sized cities in Korea. The main themes in this paper are as follows. Firstly, how does the city size, density, etc. affect the transportation energy consumption? Secondly, in an overcrowded Korean situation, which alternative is the more suitable sustainable urban form from the point of transportation energy consumption, i.e., concentration or decentralized concentration? Thirdly, we examined the argument that a densely centralized development can reduce the need for travel, increase the transit use, and decrease automobile use. From the results of the analysis, we found that as the population increases, transportation energy represented by yearly gasoline consumption per automobile and the average yearly energy consumption as a result of surface transportation per 1,000 persons tends to decrease. Further, if the degree of city’s concentration represented by Gini coefficient is high, energy efficiency tends to decrease. Besides, the influential factors on the transportation energy consumption among the indicators of urban form could be road ratio and density. Whereas the road ratio is not related to the transportation energy consumption, road density is. From the analyzed results, we can deduce planning implications concerned with Korean cities. Firstly, Korean cities are already highly centralized so a decentralization policy should be carried out to increase transportation energy efficiency. In any case, in the case of high-density cities, multinuclei cities are better than mononuclear ones. Further, to increase the transportation energy efficiency, policies for high road densities through the construction of new roads in spite of narrow road widths are more effective than those for high road ratio-widening existing roads.

Archeological Impact Evaluations and Surveys in the Texas Department of Transportation's Corpus Christi, Laredo, Pharr, and San Antonio Districts 2003-2005

This document constitutes the final report of work done by Prewitt and Associates, Inc. (PAI), under a contract from the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) to provide archeological services in four TxDOT districts—Corpus Christi, Laredo, Pharr, and San Antonio. Under this contract, PAI completed Impact Evaluations and Surveys to assist TxDOT in meeting the requirements of their Memorandum of Understanding with the Texas Historical Commission and a Programmatic Agreement between the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, the Federal Highway Administration, the Texas Historical Commission, and TxDOT. The contract began on March 17, 2003, and the last work authorization was issued on February 17, 2005. During those two years, fieldwork was done under 33 work authorizations. The 33 work authorizations consisted of 53 Impact Evaluations, 33 Surveys, and 2 Surveys with Geoarcheological Evaluation. Combined, these work authorizations entailed efforts at 47 bridge replacements, 4 bridge rehabilitation projects, 2 locations where new bridges will be built, 20 road rehabilitation or widening projects (many also involving bridge replacements or upgrades), 1 interstate highway rest area replacement, 3 drainage improvement projects, 2 curve realignment projects, 3 projects involving construction of new roads, 1 project involving construction of a railroad grade separation, 1 pedestrian bridge construction project, 1 project involving construction of a water taxi landing, 1 project involving construction of a hike-and-bike trail, 1 project involving modification of a highway interchange, and 1 project involving documentation of an archeological site disturbed by placement of a buried utility line. During completion of these work authorizations, 26 newly discovered or previously recorded archeological sites were investigated, although in the case of 9 previously recorded sites, no archeological remains were observed in the areas that will be impacted by the proposed Transportation Activities. Three of the Impact Evaluations led to recommendations that survey could be needed before construction, in some cases depending on whether new right of way would be required. The other 50 Impact Evaluations resulted in recommendations that no survey be required before construction based on the limited potential for sites with good integrity. Thirteen of the Surveys investigated a total of 3 newly recorded and 12 previously recorded sites. Of these 15 sites, 1 was considered eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places and designation as a State Archeological Landmark, and 1 was recommended as needing testing to assess eligibility. The other 33 Surveys either did not find any archeological sites, or they investigated sites that could be assessed as ineligible for National Register listing and State Archeological Landmark designation using the survey data. The records and artifacts generated by the project are curated at the Texas Archeological Research Laboratory.

Optimal forest transportation with respect to road investments

Abstract This paper concerns roundwood transport on gravel roads. The forest sector in Sweden has identified the road quality as a major problem, in particular in the spring, when the ground is thawing. The model simultaneously optimizes roundwood transport and road investments on gravel roads. The model is a mixed-integer programming model, since the road accessibility variables need to be binary. Investments in surface roads, maintenance and construction of new roads are not included in the model. We test the model with a sample problem using a small area. With a simple heuristic method ‘near to optimal’ solutions are obtained in reasonable time. In the last section we make some concluding remarks and discuss future use of the model. Heuristics and aggregation are two different ways to solve the problem in reasonable time.

Optimal forest transportation with respect to road investments

This paper concerns roundwood transport on gravel roads. The forest sector in Sweden has identified the road quality as a major problem, in particular in the spring, when the ground is thawing. The model simultaneously optimizes roundwood transport and road investments on gravel roads. The model is a mixed-integer programming model, since the road accessibility variables need to be binary. Investments in surface roads, maintenance and construction of new roads are not included in the model. We test the model with a sample problem using a small area. With a simple heuristic method ‘near to optimal’ solutions are obtained in reasonable time. In the last section we make some concluding remarks and discuss future use of the model. Heuristics and aggregation are two different ways to solve the problem in reasonable time.

AIR POLLUTION

Objective To predict the health impacts from air pollution from a big high speed highway in communities living within 1000 m of the road. Background: High speed travel, along with congestion, promotes and increases air pollution and its health risks, notably from particulates emissions from diesel vehicles. Vehicle emissions of all pollutants per vehicle-km travel increase at speeds exceeding 90 kph in Euro II petrol cars and diesel vehicles, exponentially for PM10, CO, and NOx, and arithemtically for CO2, the major greenhouse gas. ‘Predict and provide’ scenarios promote more roads and traffic. Methods We assessed future health risks from the the Trans Israel Highway and its 16 connecting roads, using exposure-effect data on thresholds for risk (Kunzli, N, Kaiser, R., Medina, S. et al. 2000. Public health impact of outdoor and traffic- related air pollution: a European assessment. Lancet 356 (9232): 795–801), observed time trends in effects on symptoms in urban school children, and exposure-effect relationships between respirable PM in schoolchildren exposed to traffic, notably diesel trucks. We took into account increases in emissions from high speed travel. Results Among approximately 202,000 residents in the corridor near the highway, the models based on the findings from the Tel Aviv area, the Netherlands study, and dose-response data suggest some1500 new cases at additional risk for asthma for each additional 10 ug/m3 of Respirable Suspended Particulates (PM10) a linear model of risk and a exposure levels of 60 ug/m3, the permissible exposure level predicts approximately 9,000 additional persons with asthma from permissible exposures. All these estimates do not take into account persons exposed to pollution from the 13–16 connecting roads. Increased travel speeds would increase these risks. Conclusions Strategies to reduce highway travel speeds-a measure targeted at road deaths-should reduce vehicular emissions and their adverse health effects and produce economic incentives for modal shifts. More trains and pollution free busses, rail shipment of heavy goods, stopping construction of new roads, specifying lower maximum speeds for vehicles-notably diesel trucks, restricting traffic in cities and shifts to other fuels are definitive strategies for arresting and reversing the adverse effects of ‘predict and provide’.

New roads and human health: a systematic review.

We sought to synthesize evidence of the health effects of construction of new roads by systematically reviewing observational studies of such effects. We included and critically appraised 32 studies. The review suggested that out-of-town bypasses decrease injuries on main roads through or around towns, although more robust evidence is needed on effects on secondary roads. New major urban roads have statistically insignificant effects on injury incidence. New major roads between towns decrease injuries. Out-of-town bypasses reduce disturbance and community severance in towns but increase them elsewhere. Major urban roads increase disturbance and severance. More robust research is needed in this area, particularly regarding effects of new roads on respiratory health, mental health, access to health services, and physical activity.

ROADLESS HABITATS AS REFUGES FOR NATIVE GRASSLANDS: INTERACTIONS WITH SOIL, ASPECT, AND GRAZING

The idea that roadless habitats act as refuges for native-plant diversity against exotic-plant invasion has seldom been tested. We examined the effect of distance from roads and its interactions with soil type, aspect, and livestock grazing on native- and exotic-plant diversity in a 130 000-ha inland California (USA) foothill grassland landscape. During spring 2000 and 2001, we measured the numbers of and cover by native and exotic plant species in 92 sites stratified by distance from roads (10 m, 100 m, and >1000 m), soil type (nonserpentine and serpentine), and aspect (cool, warm, and neutral slopes). In nonserpentine grasslands, native cover was greatest in sites >1000 m from roads (23%) and least in sites 10 m from roads (9%), and the percentage of species that were native was significantly greatest in sites >1000 m from roads (44%) and least in those 10 m from roads (32%). In addition, the most distant sites had the largest number of native grass species and the fewest exotic forb species. In serpentine grasslands there was no significant effect of distance from roads on the numbers of and cover by native and exotic species. On both soils, two exotic species (Centaurea solstitialis and Aegilops triuncialis) were at their lowest frequencies, while a native bunchgrass, Nassella pulchra, was at its highest frequency, in sites >1000 m from roads. On nonserpentine soils only, the exotics, Convolvulus arvensis and Polypogon monspeliensis, were at their lowest frequency, while a native bunchgrass, Poa secunda, was at its highest frequency in the most distant sites. Native species were more abundant on serpentine than nonserpentine soils; on serpentine, natives were more abundant on slopes than flat sites, while on nonserpentine, natives were least abundant on warm, south-facing slopes. Grazing, soil type, and aspect all significantly interacted in their effects on native and exotic richness and cover. Grazing negatively affected the number of native grass species, but not the number of native forb species on nonserpentine, and positively affected the number of native forb species, but not the number of native grass species on serpentine. Roadless areas are significant refuges for native species. However, to protect these habitats from the continued threat of invasion, land managers should consider means of preventing construction of new roads, limiting off-highway vehicle access into grasslands with low road densities, identifying a regime of livestock grazing that favors the persistence of natives over the spread of exotics, and monitoring recreational trails and grazing allotments within roadless areas to detect and eradicate new infestations. Corresponding Editor: C. C. Horvitz.

Economic appraisal of road projects in countries with developing and transition economies

Road investments in developing and transition economies constitute a large proportion of public investment programmes. It is therefore important that decisions about investments in roads are made on the basis of objective indicators estimated for the proposed road projects. Economic appraisal models provide an objective framework for the assessment of the benefits derived from investments in road infrastructure. These models incorporate an economic appraisal framework based on the concept of life-cycle cost analysis, in which the annual costs of construction and maintenance of one or more road investment alternatives are compared against a base case (without project) alternative in order to estimate the corresponding reduction in vehicle operation costs. Other benefits or costs can be included within the economic appraisal framework if they can be externally quantified. The results from the economic appraisal of road projects in developing and transition economies often show that benefits to be derived from investments in maintenance and rehabilitation of existing roads far exceed those from construction of new roads. The models also show that where there is significant traffic congestion, investments in capacity expansion can produce high economic returns provided the value assigned to travel time is realistic.

Applying the new appraisal approach to transport policy at the local level in the UK

In 1998 the UK government introduced a new, integrated transport policy signalling a move away from the principles of ‘predict and provide’ towards those of ‘new realism’. As part of this policy shift, transport strategies are now to be assessed under the New Approach to Appraisal (NATA) which is designed to promote sustainability and provide a sterner test for new road proposals. Despite this, it is already evident that the construction of new roads has remained a cornerstone of the government’s new transport strategy––albeit alongside considerable investment in public transport––which has been described as pragmatic multimodalism. This paper examines how the new appraisal approach has been applied at the local level in the formulation of the first Local Transport Strategy (LTS) for Aberdeen in north east Scotland and questions the effectiveness of NATA (and its Scottish equivalent, the New Appraisal Methodology, or NAM), as currently formulated, at promoting the delivery of genuinely integrated and sustainable local transport strategies. The analysis of Aberdeen’s LTS is used to inform a discussion about the possible implications for future local transport policies across the UK.

Effects of Roads and Human Disturbance on Amur Tigers.

Understanding the effects of human disturbance on endangered wildlife populations is critical to their conservation. We examined the effects of roads and human disturbance on the survivorship and foraging efficiency of Amur tigers ( Panthera tigris altaica) on and near Sikhote-Alin State Biosphere Zapovednik, Primorye Krai ( province), Russia. To evaluate the effects of roads, we estimated survivorship of radiocollared tigers and their cubs living in three types of areas: (1) areas with primary roads, (2) areas containing secondary roads, and (3) areas with minimal or no road access. We classified a tiger into one of these three treatments based on which types of roads bisected their 50% minimum convex polygon home ranges. Over a 9-year period (1991-2000), adult female survival was greatest (χ 2 = 12.2, df = 2, p = 0.002) for radiocollared tigers in roadless areas. All adult female tigers in roadless areas survived their tenure in those locations (n = 2), whereas all died or disappeared prematurely from areas with primary roads (n = 6). Cub survival was lower in areas with primary and secondary roads than in roadless areas (χ 2 = 10.9, df = 1, p < 0.009). We evaluated the effects of human disturbance at kill sites by examining 86 kills made by 15 tigers determining whether human disturbance had occurred at the kill site, and examining prey carcasses after tigers left, to estimate the percent meat eaten and whether the tiger abandoned the kill following human disturbance. Tigers undisturbed at kills consumed more meat ( Z = 3.71, p = 0.0002) from each kill than disturbed tigers did. Undisturbed tigers also spent more time at each kill site than disturbed tigers did ( Z = 2.3; p = 0.02). Abandonment of kills occurred in 63% of 24 instances when tigers were disturbed by people. Because roads decrease the survivorship and reproductive success of tigers, we recommend that in habitats managed for tigers, construction of new roads should be prohibited wherever possible and access to secondary roads (e.g., logging roads) should be reduced or prevented wherever possible. Protected areas seem to cease functioning as source populations where road access exists, and unprotected areas-the majority of Amur tiger range-cannot sustain stable populations with the increasing threat of human access to tiger habitat.

The Scouring of the Shire: Fairies, Trolls and Pixies in Eco-Protest Culture

Environmental protest in Britain in the 1990s flourished with the growth of the direct action movement. A distinctive culture of protest emerged, particularly in response to the construction of new roads, with its own radicalised spirituality known as ''eco-paganism.'' One feature of the movement was the adoption of a fairy mythology as a significant belief narrative. This article gives examples of this mythology, showing how it was expressed, and demonstrates that it produced three responses: outright rejection; a symbolic identification with fairies; and/or literal belief. This last position was given credence by occasional phenomenological encounters with otherworldly beings, examples of which are given. The article concludes that, whether literal or symbolic, the belief in fairies helped protesters make sense of their struggles, hardships and occasional successes.

Land-use correlates of anuran community richness and composition in southeastern Ontario wetlands

In light of increasing evidence of declining anuran populations worldwide, an important conservation issue is the extent to which declines are consequences of smaller-scale stresses such as local habitat loss or degradation, or larger-scale stresses such as climate change. Here we show that anuran richness in 77 southeastern Ontario wetlands is negatively correlated with the density of roads on lands within 1 km of the wetland, and positively correlated with the percentage of forest cover. Logistic regression analysis shows that the presence of at least two species, the mink frog (Rana septentrionalis) and the wood frog (Rana sylvatica), is negatively related to road density, while the pickerel frog (Rana palustris) shows significant positive association with adjacent forest cover. These results suggest that in southeastern Ontario, significant conservation gains can be achieved through local land-use planning and management decisions that mitigate the effects of existing roads, minimize the construction of new roads, and discourage further forest conversion on lands adjacent to wetlands.

A system of mathematical models for the simulation of land-use and transport interactions

In order to evaluate long term impacts on travel demand due to changes in transportation supply (e.g. construction of new roads or new underground railways), it is not possible to disregard the effects that such changes have on housing and employment locations (i.e. land use and transportation interactions). In this paper a system of analytical models dealing with the comples interactions between transportation and urban activities systems is presented. The overall framework consists of integrated submodels simulating in turn travel demand, residential location and activity location choices, based on a behavioral approach consistent with Random Utility theory. Interactions between components of the urban system are simulated through an equilibrium approach. Models' specification and calibration results, based on disaggregate and aggregate data, as well as an application to the city of Rome, Italy, are presented.

Review of Ecological Effects of Roads on Terrestrial and Aquatic Communities

Abstract: Roads are a widespread and increasing feature of most landscapes. We reviewed the scientific literature on the ecological effects of roads and found support for the general conclusion that they are associated with negative effects on biotic integrity in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Roads of all kinds have seven general effects: mortality from road construction, mortality from collision with vehicles, modification of animal behavior, alteration of the physical environment, alteration of the chemical environment, spread of exotics, and increased use of areas by humans. Road construction kills sessile and slow‐moving organisms, injures organisms adjacent to a road, and alters physical conditions beneath a road. Vehicle collisions affect the demography of many species, both vertebrates and invertebrates; mitigation measures to reduce roadkill have been only partly successful. Roads alter animal behavior by causing changes in home ranges, movement, reproductive success, escape response, and physiological state. Roads change soil density, temperature, soil water content, light levels, dust, surface waters, patterns of runoff, and sedimentation, as well as adding heavy metals (especially lead), salts, organic molecules, ozone, and nutrients to roadside environments. Roads promote the dispersal of exotic species by altering habitats, stressing native species, and providing movement corridors. Roads also promote increased hunting, fishing, passive harassment of animals, and landscape modifications. Not all species and ecosystems are equally affected by roads, but overall the presence of roads is highly correlated with changes in species composition, population sizes, and hydrologic and geomorphic processes that shape aquatic and riparian systems. More experimental research is needed to complement post‐hoc correlative studies. Our review underscores the importance to conservation of avoiding construction of new roads in roadless or sparsely roaded areas and of removal or restoration of existing roads to benefit both terrestrial and aquatic biota.

Maintenance of the Austrian Rural Road Network: Organization and Financial Aspects

After more than 35 years of construction, the Austrian rural road network is almost completed. The construction of new roads will decrease within the next decade due to finalization of the development plans. Thus, the maintenance of the rural road network has been the major task for the last 10 years, and will continue to be important. An overview of the organization of the maintenance plans in the different provinces and of the financing is provided. As no federal funds are available for maintenance costs—unlike the case with new construction—only small contributions from provinces are possible, while the road owners and communities cover the majority of costs. This requires the most cost-effective maintenance methods and a lean organization for performing maintenance, like district or province maintenance associations. Research for the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has provided a practical model for the systematic maintenance of rural roads. Thus, a technical basis for systematic pavement management for rural roads is already available, including all steps for inventory, condition rating, maintenance-method choice, and prioritization.

Improvement of Road Network Reliability with Traffic Management

For traffic management and new road construction, the road planning procedure requires indicators of present road network performance level for explaining the convenience derived from the new traffic management and the construction of new roads. The conventional indicators are quantitative or static such as the total length of road per unit area or average travel time. Now a new indicator reflecting the quality of a road network and steadiness of its performance is required.This paper proposes the reliability of road networks as a new indicator for road network management and construction. First, the significance of road network reliability and the benefits of increasing reliability are discussed. Next, methods for estimating terminal reliability and link reliability are described. In addition, the propagation mechanism of OD flow variation to link flow variation is clarified. Finally, reliability analyses before and after the introduction of traffic management are demonstrated for an actual road network.

An examination of non‐economic factors related to tourism in Greece

Environmental and Ecological Effects Tourism is also seen as capable of disturbing and destroying environmental and ecological elements (Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development 1980). Rural landscapes may be damaged by the construction of new roads, caravan and camping sites, or obtrusive hotels. As pointed out by Hamilton “the price paid by a host community can be the loss of peace and tranquility, the desecration of shrines and artifacts, the death of a traditional culture or changes in the ecological balance” (Hamilton 1973, p. 61).