Consonant Alternations Research Articles

VOCABULARY OF THE LEXICAL MINIMUM WHEN LEARNING UKRAINIAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (LEVEL A1) (A review of the textbook by Ksenia Borodin and Oksana Turkevych “1000 and 1 Words. Lexical minimum in Ukrainian (A1)” – Slavic Language Education 3 (LANGUAGE-LAB), 2023. – 58 p.)

The review characterizes the first edition of the lexical minimum for Ukrainian as a foreign language at the A1 level in accordance with the “Standardized Requirements: Levels of Proficiency in Ukrainian as a Foreign Language A1-C2” (Kyiv, 2020). The structure, grammatical description, and examples of the use of language units contained in the textbook are analyzed. The author explains the criteria used to form the content of the A1 lexical minimum. The lexical material is organized and described with grammatical comments on the alternation of vowels or consonants, the formation of plural forms from other bases, the use of dative and accusative forms of personal pronouns, personal or imperative verb forms, etc. The authors also see this as an element of self-testing for knowledge of the relevant word forms, as well as in the case of forming a context for each vocabulary unit, which demonstrates to users – both students and teachers and scholars in the field of linguistics – the practical application of the lexical minimum. Also noteworthy are the didactic tips on how to work with this educational material (translation tasks, making word cards by topic group, creating tests to check the acquired knowledge at A1 level, etc.) The textbook is an extremely important and relevant work that has been prepared in accordance with modern requirements, didactic achievements and scientific research in the study and teaching of Ukrainian as a foreign language. Undoubtedly, this work will help beginner students, teachers, and all those interested in mastering the Ukrainian language to develop the lexical skills necessary for the realization of communicative activities as soon as possible and in a structured way. Key words: Ukrainian as a foreign language, lexical minimum, beginner level A1, Standardized requirements for levels of proficiency in Ukrainian as a foreign language.

EAST PODILLYA DIALECT IN THE COLLECTIONS OF OLHA PAVLENKO "MALVY NA PRYCHELKU" AND "WHOM GOD LOVES"

The article analyses the typical East Podillya dialect features represented in the collections of the contemporary Ukrainian writer Olha Pavlenko "Malvy na prychelku" and "Whom God Loves". It is noted that, unlike other writers who mainly use only lexical dialectal elements in their works, Olha Pavlenko does not limit herself to the lexical level, but also introduces words that demonstrate phonetic and morphological features of the Eastern Podillya dialects into the canvas of the literary text. In particular, the disappearance of the correlation |р| : |р'| correlation, dislocation of [т'] in verb forms, prototic consonants [г], [й] before vowels [о], [и], epenthetic consonants, compounds [мн'], [вл'] instead of [мй], [вй], realisation of the phoneme |ф| by the sound combination [хв], truncation of word bases or engthening of foreign language bases, etc. The accentuation peculiarities of the Eastern Podillya dialects are traced in the rhyming texts included in the stories of the collections. Among the morphological features of the East Podillya dialects are the remnants of the dual number forms in nouns, the lack of differentiation of feminine and masculine nouns of the first and second cases in the singular ablative into hard, soft and mixed groups, the formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives with the help of suffixes -енн-, -езн-, -ч-, -ецьк-, adverbs of adjectival origin - with the suffix -ч-, the absence of consonant alternation in verbal personal forms, the formation of passive participles and impersonal verbs with the suffix -ян-, the use of numerals єден and штири, etc. The article emphasises that the author uses dialect words only in the speech of the characters. It is concluded that the lexemes that demonstrate the East Podillya dialect features are a linguistic means of creating a special colour of the stories from Olha Pavlenko's collections, convey the expression of the characters' speech and are stylistically motivated.

WORD-BUILDING MORPHONOLOGY OF THE DEVERBATIVES IN THE WORKS OF M. KIDRUK

The article deals with the specifi city of the deverbatives in the word-formation and morphonological aspect based on M. Kidruk’s prose works; the derivational means, the word-formation models and morphonological models of the verbal derivatives of the author are identifi ed. The main feature of M. Kidruk’s language material is high intellectualism, coupled with the linguistic realism. The writer’s idiostyle is a system of the language means formed as a result of the creative use of the linguistic phenomena in Ukrainian. The main aspects of the individual style of the writer such as the deeply moving narrative, dialogues, naturalness, clarity of presentation are shown. The specifi ity of the language organization is defi ned, active word-formation resources and accompanying morphonological processes are described in the nomination of fragments of the modern Ukrainian-language picture of the author’s world, word-formation and morphonological features of the deverbatives in the prose works are determined, word-formation means and morphonological models of the verbal derivatives are highlighted in the works of the author in the stylistic aspect as means of stylistic expressiveness. It has been established that the deverbatives of the substantive block used in the prose works of M. Kidruk indicate the names of the persons, objects of the abstract names, indicated action and they belong to the productive linguistic units. The nouns for naming the abstract action and the result of the action are characterized by the lower productivity. It has been revealed that for the verbal derivatives of the substantive block, the following morphonological phenomena, such as the verbal ending, consonant alternation (P//P1 (the alternation of the labial and labial + l, C//C), the alternation due to the infl uence of the ancient suffi xal phoneme j, the alternation of the linguistic dental consonants with the pre-dental hushing sound), C//C ‘(the alternation of hard consonant with the palatalized phoneme), C’//C (the alternation of palatalized with the hard consonant phoneme) and the vocal (V//V) alternatives, the shift of accent are applied.

About changes and additions to the spelling of parts of the base of the word

The article analyzes the most important problems of spelling parts of the base of a word, primarily the letter designation of some vowel and consonant sounds, the use of и at the beginning of words before и and р, the alternation of ґ with other consonants during word change and word formation, the spelling of voiced consonants in the position before a voiceless consonant, etc. We compared the content of these norms with the norms of “Ukrainian Spelling” of 1993 and with some of its previous editions. Linguists have repeatedly called for the replacement of some phonetic norms codified in various editions of “Ukrainian Spelling”. They were reviewed for the first time in “Ukrainian Spelling. Projects of the latest edition” 1999. But this spelling was not adopted. New rules and additions to some of the previous rules proposed in “Ukrainian Spelling” 2019 are definitely needed. However, taking into account the historically formed peculiarities of the Ukrainian language and modern trends in language practice, we suggest making changes that will contribute to the further normalization of the spelling of parts of the base of the word. In particular: 1) introduce the norm of using the letter и at the beginning of specific Ukrainian and some long-borrowed words before и and p; 2) submit rules on the transmission of voiced and unvoiced consonant sounds in writing; 3) to introduce the norm of alternating [ґ] — [ж] during word formation; 4) submit in various sections of spelling the rules on the alternation of consonants before the suffix -ськ-(ий) in adjectives formed from common names and from proper geographical names, which will contribute to the elimination of repetitions; 5) clarify the rules on the use of в / в- at the beginning of words and sentences before the next consonant. Keywords: spelling of the parts of the base of the word, spelling norm, sounds, letter designations, alternation of consonants, alternation of vowels.

Семантика лексемы һэшхэл в бурятском языке

The semantics of the Buryat noun һešxel has not been investigated in Buryat linguistics. According to the Buryat-Russian Dictionary, the lexeme under consideration has the single meaning of “conscience.” This study aimed to reveal a holistic picture of the semantics of the lexeme under study. The Electronic Corpus of the Buryat language was chosen as an invaluable source for identifying the other meanings of the lexeme. The corpus contains 2.8 million instances of word usage documented in written texts, primarily of the literary style, accompanied by their meta-descriptions. The word hešxel was formed by the phonetic method of word formation from the word sed’xel “thoughts, intention, soul, heart.” The alternation of root consonants s//һ, d’//š can be traced. The analysis of the Electronic Corpus identified the original meaning of hešxel “soul” later extended to “sympathy, affection,” “sincerity, responsiveness,” “intimate connection” and “wish.” The meaning of “conscience” is believed to have originated from the concepts of “sincerity and responsiveness.” For example, the adverb hešxelgüi could be translated both “half-hearted, indifferent” and “unscrupulous, shameless.” Additionally, the meaning “conscience” is assumed to have appeared influenced by the Russian language, given the absence of a special word for “conscience” in the Khalkha-Mongolian language. Buryat language, at a certain point, probably needed a word to regulate human behavior in society to define moral guidelines. A further study of the Mongolic-language vocabulary characterizing human emotional states may expand the semantic structure of words and uncover the peculiarities of the value system of the Mongolic peoples.

Простые глаголы в осетинском и персидском языках в сравнительно-сопоставительном аспекте

The aim of the research is to identify common and unique features of simple verbs in the modern Ossetian and Persian languages. Scientific novelty lies in taking a comprehensive approach to studying the issue: the peculiarities and common features of verb stems, infinitive forms, formation of causative forms, structural and word-formation types of simple verbs in the Ossetian and Persian languages are described. As a result, it has been proved that regular and irregular verbs in the Ossetian and Persian languages have more similarities than differences. Thus, Persian regular verbs form the past tense stem by attaching the suffix -d or -id to the present tense stem, while similar stems in the Ossetian language have the suffix -t or -d; irregular verbs are characterised by the same number of vowel or consonant alternations in the present and past tense stems. It has been found that the Ossetian simple verb does not have a structural and word-formation type equivalent to Persian similar-to-regular verbs. It has turned out that preverbs in the Ossetian language are combined not only with verbs of action and movement and possess aspectual and deictic meanings in addition to spatial meanings.

„Лексикографка” чи „лексикографиня”? Українсько-польські паралелі жіночого словотворення

This article reveals the similar and different word-formative types of feminine personal nouns in the Ukrainian and Polish languages, which were selected from the modern dictionaries and compared. Using lexicographic sources, corpora and statistics, the author tests the hypothesis of Polish influences on the word formation of Ukrainian feminine terms. As a result of the study, a possible Polish influence was found on the word-formative type of feminitives with -(Ч)ИН(Я), which testifies to the convergence of Ukrainian with West Slavic languages. At the same time, original Ukrainian feminine personal nouns are created mainly with the help of the formants -ИЦ(Я) and -ИН(Я), and these suffixes are added without alternation of consonants, which is more typical for newly coined Polish feminine terms.

Alternation of Lenis and Fortis Consonants in Ẹ̀dó and Ésàn as Indicators of a Dynamic Sound Change in Ẹdo

Ẹdo and Esan belong to the group of genetically related languages referred to as the Ẹdoid group of languages, which in turn belongs, along with other Nigerian languages such as Yoruba, Igbo, Nupe, Idoma, and Izọn, to the Kwa branch of the Niger-Congo language family. The similarities between the speech forms of Ẹdo and Esan compared to the other Ẹdoid languages are evidenced in the high number of cognate sets based on a lexical statistical analysis. This naturally implies that the behaviour of sound segments in any of the two languages could serve as indicators of any evolutionary trend in any of the two languages. It is observed that the phonetically weak consonants [ɱ, n, ɹ] in Ẹdo lexical items alternate with their corresponding strong counterparts [m and l] in similar lexical items in Esan. The relative stability of the strong forms in contemporary Esan language seems to give credence to the claim of a dynamic sound change observable in contemporary Ẹdo language where the proto bilabial stops /b/, and /m/; the alveolar lateral stop, /l/, evolved into the relatively weak bilabial oral and labiodental nasal approximants, [β] and [ɱ] respectively, and the alveolar lateral approximant [ɹ], which is currently being outrightly deleted in any position of the words in which it occurs, thus following the evolution pattern /l/ > [ɹ] > [ø]. The over bearing influence of the English language and the Nigerian pidgin, the two languages that have taken over practically all Ẹdo homes, and the non-teaching of the language in the Ẹdo State educational system have been identified as catalysts to the endangerment of the Ẹdo language that may go into extinction in the very near future if drastic measures aimed at reversing the trend are not urgently and diligently applied.

Alternation of consonants in the Iraqi "Baghdad" dialect

This article discusses the most beloved and creative dialect of the Arabs - the Iraqi dialect, despite its complexity, but it has a lot of beautiful foreign vocabulary. We followed a descriptive and historical approach, also tracked phonetic changes in this dialect, and then gave phonological explanations for these phenomena, trying to connect most of the phenomena with their historical roots in the standard Arabic "al-Fussha" and in ancient Arabic dialects. Most modern linguists have realized the need to study these dialects, since many of the modern dialect characteristics are only extensions of some ancient Arabic dialects, and do not refer them to the classical language. The study of modern Arabic dialects may be faced with a number of obstacles being in this important area of linguistic investigations, including the feeling that the study of modern dialects is a kind of encouragement and the desire to demonstrate and replace them with Classical Arabic.

Obligatory features of Lithuanian verbal inflection classes

Lithuanian verbal inflection classes are defined by tense suffixes, stem‑forming affixes, vowel and consonant alternations, and accentuation patterns. I make a distinction between obligatory features that are relevant for every verb and non‑obligatory features that characterize only part of the verbs. I argue that the obligatory features are the present and the past tense suffixes combined with mobile and immobile accentuation patterns, while the rest of the features are optional. When only the obligatory features are taken into account, three types of the present tense (‑a‑, ‑i‑, ‑o‑) and two types of the past tense (‑ė‑, ‑o‑) suffixes are found in five combinations (‑a‑/‑ė‑, ‑a‑/‑o‑, ‑i‑/‑o‑, ‑o‑/‑ė‑, ‑o‑/‑o‑) with further variants defined by two types of mobile and one type of immobile accentuation, resulting in eighteen suffixal‑accentual combinations in standard Lithuanian. The combinations of features characterizing the present and the past stems support the view of inflection classes as classes of stems rather than of lexemes (Stump 2016).

UKRAINIAN LANGUAGE MEANS OF EUPHONY AND MODERN LANGUAGE PRACTICE

The article examines the problem of compliance with the norms of positional alternation of vowels and consonants “у” and “в” which is relevant for modern Ukrainian linguistics, in order to achieve euphonomy in the Ukrainian language. Based on the textbook “Local lore: theory and practice” (Kyiv: Center for Educational Literature, 2012. 528 p.) we have analyzed 378 examples of the use of prepositions-prefixes “у” and “в” (euphonems), separated by the method of continuous selection from the first 55 pages of the publication. The normative ones turned out to be 314 examples, which is 83.1%, erroneous - 64 examples (16.9%). During our research we used statistical, comparative, structural (descriptive) methods and analysis . The study of possible reasons for non-compliance with the current spelling rules for cases of non-normative use in comparing them with the normative ones, as well as the comparison of statistical data with the materials of previous studies, allowed us to find out some patterns in the rules of euphony. It is stated that the modern speaker constantly avoids the coincidence of vowels, confirming the unkindness of such sound combinations. It was found that the lack of flexibility in spelling recommendations for consonant matches, in particular ignoring the requirements of the melody of a particular phrase and the individual sense of the speaker, contributes to the emergence of numerous cases of violations. A significant percentage of errors justifies the presence of a pause and pronunciation of the “ў”-infinitive. It is noted that the largest number of consonant coincidences occurs in the use of “в” before the phonetic (sonorous) consonant, in particular before the next “й”, this position is perceived by many speakers as easy to pronounce. Modern Ukrainian spelling should provide more opportunities for flexible use of euphony means, in particular positional alternation of “у” and “в”. Key words: ukrainian language, euphony, normalization, means of euphony in ukrainian language, positional alternation of “у” and “в”.

Ways of coining reduplicated idioms

The article focuses on the phenomenon of reduplication on the idiomatic level. Reduplicated idioms are characterized by emotional coloring, expressiveness and peculiar rhythmic melodies, they serve as a means of creating emotional expressions by giving some stylistic coloring to the context in which they are used. The groups of reduplicated idioms have been chosen from lexicographical sources, created by means of onomatopoeia, lexical repetitions in singular and plural, with linking elements (conjunctions, particles) or without them. Their belonging to the morphological class of nouns, verbs, adjectives in the comparative and superlative degree of comparison, numerals, pronouns and exclamations has been established. Their inherent positive and negative connotations, the correlation with various spheres of human activity have been proved. The way of creating reduplicated idioms has been demonstrated to be productive – the alternation of vowels and consonants at the beginning and at the end of the repetition. Such word-forming processes as conversion, affixation and reduplication have taken an active part in the creation of reduplicated idioms, and in most cases transformations of forms are accompanied by semantic derivation. It has been confirmed that the practical value of the study is, first of all, that the selected examples of reduplicated idioms can be used in classes on lexicology, stylistics and serve as material for further research. We see the prospect of further research in the study of the effectiveness of the affix potential for the creation of reduplicated idioms, particularly the use of ablaut reduplication, rhyming compounds, fully reduplicated echoic expressions in different discourses.

���˲��ֲ� ������ ������������� ���������ί ���� � �����Ͳ� �����²� ˲������в ����Ͳ������� ���Բ��

The article emphasizes the problem of observance of the current orthographic norms concerning the positional alternation of vowels and consonants �� and �� in order to achieve euphony in Ukrainian language. The purpose of the article is to analyze the implementation of the norms of the current Ukrainian orthography regarding to the positional alternation of �� and �� in the modern scientific literature of the humanitarian profile. The method of continuous selection is used in the work, as well as comparative, structural (descriptive) methods and prescriptive-descriptive analysis. The material for the study are scientific articles published in the �Humanities bulletin of Zaporizhzhe state engineering academy. 2019. � 77�. By the method of continuous selection from this edition, 509 examples of the use of the prepositionprefix �� and ��(euphonem) have been isolated. Only 328 examples turned out to correspond to the current norms and 181, which are 35.6%, turned out to be erroneous. The presence of such a significant number of errors in the application confirms the need to thoroughly analyze the conditions of noncompliance with the current norms and the grounds that could have contributed to this situation. Based on chosen material it is stated that consistent observance of norm of use �� in a position between two vowels. At the same time, the highest percentage of violations of normativeness was recorded �in the position after the vowel before the consonant� � 109 examples, which is more than 60% of all erroneous examples, and in the models �at the beginning of the phrase (after the punctuation mark) before the consonant� � 47 examples (25.9%) and �in between two consonants� � 20 examples (11%). A detailed analysis of erroneous euphonems in comparison with normative ones has revealed that most cases of noncompliance with the current norm should not be interpreted as gross violations, but can be justified by certain objective circumstances. The main reasons for non-compliance with the formal rules of positional alternation �� and �� are revealed. They are pronunciation in certain positions of the y-infinitive, the presence of intonation pauses, use in uncomplicated combinations with sonorous sound, in particular with middle-language etc. There is a much higher frequency of errors in prepositional constructions compared to prefixal ones, which may be evidence of a certain trend. The predominance of phonetic preconditions for non-compliance with the norms against the background of a large percentage of erroneous models give the reason to doubt the sufficient balance and thoughtfulness of the current spelling regarding the norms of positional alternations of vowels and consonants. Some recommendations are proposed to improve the current spelling in order to further correct this situation. In particular, the peculiarities of articulation �� and �� (positional pronunciation of the y-infinitive), the peculiarities of intonation in specific segments of speech give grounds not to require speakers to use a vowel or consonant: the choice should be influenced not only by formal sound environment but also by melody phrases, intonation, preferences and language habits of the author, etc.

Good nouns, naughty verbs: How French borrowings receive grammatical tones in Guinean Kpelle

The paper discusses how modern French loan nouns and verbs are morphophonologically adapted into Guinean Kpelle (Southwestern Mande), with a special focus on tone. To date, studies of prosodic loanword adaption from stress to tone languages have mainly focused on lexical tone assignment, largely neglecting other phenomena. This study contributes to the discussion by describing primary tone assignment of French loanwords in Guinean Kpelle, and, crucially, by exploring how loan words behave with respect to other complex morphophonological phenomena, mainly, prefixal and replacive grammatical tones, consonant alternations, and surface tone rules. My data suggest that loan nouns perfectly follow native Guinean Kpelle rules, whereas loan verbs have a distinct replacive {HL} morphological marker corresponding to {L} in native verbs. Distinct prosodic marking of loan verbs in Guinean Kpelle broadens our understanding of loanword typology, as well as of grammatical tone.

The Jen language cluster: A comparative analysis of wordlists

A lexicostatistical analysis divides the Jen language cluster into two primary branches Burak-Loo-Maghdi-Mak and Kyak-Moo-Leelau-Tha-Doso-Dza. This is also supported by extensive isoglosses, replacing the older Bikwin-Jen division at least for purposes of genetic classification. For vowels, a 9-vowel system is reconstructed, but its 3-way height contrasts appear unstable in some languages, either in the central vowels or in the front and back vowels. Front and back vowels also vary widely with diphthongs. Prosodic features of nasalisation, tone, and breathiness are reconstructed, with nasalisation developing in more roots in the second primary branch. For consonants, the large inventory includes particularly unstable coronals, and development of voiceless approximants in Doso-Dza. The comparative evidence is conflicting as to whether labialised and palatalised structures are secondary modifications or onset sequences, suggesting the need for a variationist approach. Overall, riverine Jen varieties Tha, Doso, Dza show unusually extensive sound change, in contrast to the more phonologically stable Bikwin varieties. Applications to orthography development include the need to represent implosives and /r/ in languages other than Dza, where they have been lost, and the need to represent vowel nasalisation and /h/ in languages of the second branch only. Initial stem consonant alternations seen in both nouns and verbs need more investigation in Jen languages.

Causative/Inchoative Verb Alternation in Altaic Languages: Turkish, Turkmen, Nanai and Mongolian

The purpose of the study is two-fold. First, a statistical analysis of the morphology of causative/inchoative verb alternation is carried out in Japanese and in 13 Altaic languages, i.e., Turkish, Turkmen, Nanai, Khakas, Udihe, Uzbek, Sakha, Manchu, Kyrgyz, Mongolian, Kazakh, Ewen, and Azerbaijani. The findings reveal that causative/inchoative verb alternation (a) can be realised via the insertion of an infix (‘-uul-’, ‘-e-’, ‘-g-’, etc.); (b) can be inchoative root-based, with transitive verbs derived via attaching a suffix to the inchoative verb roots (‘-dur-’, ‘-t-’, ‘-ir-’, ‘-dyr-’, ‘-wəən-’, ‘-buwəən-’, ‘-r-’, ‘-wənə-’, ‘-nar-’, ‘-ier-’, ‘-er-’, ‘-bu-’, ‘-ʊkan-’); (c) can be causative verb-based, with inchoative verbs being derived via attaching a suffix to the causative verb roots (‘-p-’, ‘-n-’, ‘-ul-’, ‘-il-’); and (d) can be realised via consonant alternation (‘-r-’ (transitive) / ‘-n-’ (intransitive); ‘-t-’ (transitive) / ‘-n-’ (intransitive)). This study further attempts to pin down the affiliation of these languages with the Japanese language. It compares the morphological findings with Japanese bound morphemes in causative/inchoative verb alternation and then delves into the phonological issues, i.e., consonant alternation and vowel harmony. A proposal is put forward: phonologically and morphologically, Japanese has a good deal of resemblance to the 13 Altaic languages.

Semi-automatic construction of word-formation networks

The article presents a semi-automatic method for the construction of word-formation networks focusing particularly on derivation. The proposed approach applies a sequential pattern mining technique to construct useful morphological features in an unsupervised manner. The features take the form of regular expressions and later they are used to feed a machine-learned ranking model. The network is constructed by applying the learned model to sort the lists of possible base words and selecting the most probable ones. This approach, besides relatively small training set and a lexicon, does not require any additional language resources such as a list of vowel and consonant alternations, part-of-speech tags etc. The proposed approach is evaluated on lexeme sets of four languages, namely Polish, Spanish, Czech, and French. The conducted experiments demonstrate the ability of the proposed method to construct linguistically adequate word-formation networks from small training sets. Furthermore, the performed feasibility study shows that the method can further benefit from the interaction with a human language expert within the active learning framework.

СОПОСТАВИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКИ КАТЕГОРИЙ ЗАЛОГА И ВИДА ГЛАГОЛА В ОРОЧОНСКОМ И ЭВЕНКИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКАХ

Comparing voice and aspect categories in Orochon and EvenkiThe current article presents the results of examining the Orochon voice and aspect verb categories, their meaning and forming patterns. First, The dataresulting from the comparison of Orochon and Evenki verb categories reveal considerable similarity of the grammatical systems of the two closely related languages. First, voice category analysis demonstrates its general similarity. The reflexive voice not previously registered in the Orochon language, according to our field materials, is present there. The grammatical category of voice in the compared languages is formed by means of affixes; the affix forms mostly correlate with the exception of the imperative and cooperative voice where interchange of sounds is found within the affixes. Secondly, aspect types do not correspond in the two languages. Five aspect types demonstrate the correlation in meaning and formation. Nevertheless, each language has aspects which are notpresented in the other. The affixes of the same aspect types are generally equivalent. However, some aspect forms demonstrate vowel or consonant alternations within the affixes. Finally, larger spectrum of affixes characteristic for the corresponding verb patterns should be noted in Evenki compared to Orochon.

Subjectivity in Japanese: A Corpus-Linguistic Study

This paper provides a corpus-linguistic study on subjectivity in Japanese, in an effort to arrive at how subjectivity, transitivity and grammaticalisation are related. 899 lexicons from nine grammatical categories (suffixes and prefixes, adjectives, particles, auxiliaries, nouns, adnominals, adverbs, and transitive/intransitive verb pairs) are examined. The findings reveal that Japanese is a subjective/objective-split language, and that subjectivity in affixes is facilitated by phonology: voiced/voiceless consonant alternation. The data also show that consonant-voiced prefixes and suffixes yield a subjective reading, while consonant-voiceless prefixes and suffixes render an objective meaning. Split subjectivity in adjectives is realised by morphology: しい-ending adjectives tend to be subjective, while い-ending adjectives are mostly objective. The differentiation of subjectivity in adjectives is further tied to the constraints on personal pronoun and verbalisation possibilities. Intriguingly, objective/subjective readings of しい-ending adjectives andい-ending adjectives are switchable. Furthermore, among transitive/intransitive verb pairs, intransitive verbs are likely to get grammaticalised, while transitive verbs are likely to be lexicalised and thus render a subjective reading. This is confirmed by change-of-state verbs and motion verbs. This paper therefore puts forward the hypothesis that the interrelationship of grammaticalisation and lexicalisation is orthogonal.

Consonant Alternations of Chinese Pidgin English in The Chinese and English Instructor (1862)

Consonant Alternations of Chinese Pidgin English in The Chinese and English Instructor (1862)