Phytoseiid mites (Mesostigmata: Phytoseiidae) are a diverse family of predatory arthropods that play a crucial role in controlling herbivorous mite and insect populations in agricultural ecosystems. Within this family, the genus Euseius Wainstein includes generalist predators known for their ability to utilize alternative food sources such as pollen, making them valuable in both augmentative and conservation biological control strategies. Among these, Euseius finlandicus (Oudemans) is widely distributed across various agroecosystems in Türkiye, particularly in citrus orchards, and is recognized for its potential contribution to sustainable pest management. This study evaluated the acute toxicity and sublethal reproductive effects of five acaricides commonly applied in citrus cultivation-abamectin, etoxazole, fenbutatin oxide, pyridaben, and spirodiclofen-on the eggs, larvae, and adult females of E. finlandicus. The experiments were conducted under standardized laboratory conditions (25 ± 2°C, 65 ± 10% relative humidity, and a 16:8h light: dark photoperiod). In addition to assessing the highest manufacturer-recommended concentrations, differential dose-response effects were investigated in accordance with the toxicity levels observed. Both abamectin and pyridaben demonstrated low ovicidal and marked larvicidal activity and induced complete mortality (100%) in adult females within 24h, thereby precluding the assessment of their impact on fecundity. Etoxazole caused moderate egg (19.17%), complete larval, and low adult mortality (10.34%). Fenbutatin oxide and spirodiclofen were associated with relatively low toxicity across all developmental stages evaluated, with adult mortality remaining below 13%. Regarding reproductive parameters, neither etoxazole nor fenbutatin oxide significantly impaired oviposition compared to the control, while spirodiclofen was associated with a reduction in fecundity. Based on these findings, fenbutatin oxide and spirodiclofen are considered compatible with E. finlandicus within the context of integrated pest management. In contrast, abamectin and pyridaben exhibited deleterious effects across larva and adult stages and are deemed incompatible. Etoxazole warrants cautious use due to its stage-specific toxicity. Consequently, field and semi-field trials are essential to further elucidate the ecological risk profiles of abamectin, etoxazole, and pyridaben under realistic agronomic conditions.

Biological control is a key component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs aimed at meeting yield and environmental goals of agriculture. In the search for effective natural enemies against the globally invasive tomato pest Phthorimaea absoluta, we evaluated the biological traits of the Neotropical mirid Campyloneuropsis cincticornis. Through laboratory bioassays, we assessed: (1) predation rates of different developmental stages of C. cincticornis on P. absoluta eggs and larvae; (2) oviposition behavior on two host plants—Solanum sisymbriifolium (sticky nightshade) and S. lycopersicum (tomato), and (3) development time on both plants. Older nymphs and adult females consumed more P. absoluta eggs and all stages (except first-instar nymphs) were able to feed on larvae, including those concealed inside leaf mines. Oviposition was markedly higher on S. sisymbriifolium, suggesting a strong preference likely shaped by offspring performance. C. cincticornis egg development time did not differ between host plants, whereas nymphal development was significantly faster on S. sisymbriifolium. These findings position C. cincticornis as a promising candidate for both augmentative and conservation biological control of P. absoluta, particularly in systems where native solanaceous vegetation is present.

Restoring functional farmland biodiversity for biological pest control.

Several flowering plant species enhance parasitoid performance without benefiting host pests: Implications for conservation biological control in maize agroecosystems

In arid and hyper-arid regions, natural habitats with limited water availability are characterized by sparce vegetation, low host density, and harsh climatic conditions. Whether these arid natural habitats can support natural enemies and facilitate biological control in local agroecosystems is largely unknown. In this study, we determined the effects of landscape composition (the coverage of native Gobi habitats, water bodies and the Shannon's landscape diversity index) on the abundance of mummified aphids and the aphid parasitism rate in local conventional cotton fields under the desert-oasis landscape settings in southern Xinjiang, China. Additionally, to evaluate the impacts of landscape effects above on aphid control, we also investigated the relationship between parasitism rate and aphid population density. Our results demonstrated that: (i) parasitic wasps provide unstable but effective biological control, especially in August; (ii) the in-field mummified aphid abundance and the aphid parasitism rate showed a consistent negative correlation with coverage in the local landscape of native Gobi habitat, both in July and August; (iii) the abundance of live aphids was significantly negatively correlated to aphid parasitism rate in August, which thus linked the percentage cover of high Gobi habitat with relative higher aphid pressure in local cotton fields. Our research clarifies the impact of arid natural habitats on parasitic wasps and their pest control capabilities in arid and hyper-arid cotton growing regions. This finding provides useful information for the development of conservation biological control strategies based on habitat management in arid and hyper-arid regions. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a significant fruit pest of economic and quarantine importance in South America. Biological control using augmentative releases of parasitoids or conservation strategies for these natural enemies are handy tools in integrated fruit fly management programs. The functional response describes the natural enemy consumption rate with increasing resource density. Such information may be relevant for selecting the parasitoid species that is potentially most suitable to serve as a biocontrol agent of A. fraterculus. Furthermore, the number of discarded hosts determined from functional response analysis might be used to estimate suitable host densities, avoiding wastage of larvae/puparia associated with host overproduction. Therefore, the current study aimed to evaluate the functional response of four Neotropical-native parasitoid species commonly associated with species of the Anastrepha genus in the Americas, such as the pupal parasitoid Coptera haywardi (Ogloblin) (Hymenoptera: Diapriidae) and the larval parasitoids Ganaspis pelleranoi (Brèthes) (Hymenoptera: Figitidae), Doryctobracon crawfordi (Viereck), and Opius bellus Gahan (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). The package "frair" from R software was used to determine the functional response type and parameter estimation, enabling selection, fitting, and comparison among standard functional response models and integral parameters. Four relevant conclusions can be highlighted: (a) G. pelleranoi showed a flexible functional response, with a statistically significant deviation to a Type III rather than a Type II response found among the three other parasitoid species; (b) G. pelleranoi had a handling time significantly lower than the other tested parasitoid species; (c) the number of attacked hosts varied among all four parasitoid species, with C. haywardi and G. pelleranoi exhibiting the highest proportion of attacks at low and high host densities, respectively; and (d) the percentage of discarded hosts was significantly low at 1-5 and 1-20 hosts per parasitoid in C. haywardi and G. pelleranoi, respectively, whereas in both D. crawfordi and O. bellus, it was high at any offered host density. Results provide helpful comparative information about the possible performance of these species as biocontrol agents against A. fraterculus populations within augmentative and/or conservative biological control programs.

ABSTRACTLettuce is an economically significant crop in Canada, with 70% of commercial production occurring in peatlands (Histosols) in southern Quebec. Insecticide application is currently the main method for managing lettuce pests, but there is a growing need for sustainable pest control alternatives. Conservation biological control, such as incorporating flowering strips into fields to attract natural enemies, is a promising strategy. This study evaluates the potential of sweet alyssum, Lobularia maritima, to attract syrphids, whose larvae are voracious predators of lettuce pests, particularly aphids. A total of 16 species were collected from flowering plants across three lettuce farms in Quebec. The most abundant species was Toxomerus marginatus, accounting for 70% of all specimens, followed by Sphaerophoria philanthus (10.3%) and Allograpta obliqua (4.6%). All other species each constituted less than 4% of the total catch. A subset of 82 females from the Sphaerophoria philanthus/asymmetrica/abbreviata species complex underwent COI DNA‐based delimitation analyses, revealing three molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs). Fourteen of the 16 identified species or MOTUs are aphidophagous. Analysis of diversity metrics across the three sites indicated no statistically significant differences between flower and control treatments. However, of the 16 species recorded, 10 were found exclusively or predominantly (≥ 80%) in flower plots. Our findings suggest that alyssum flowers can successfully attract natural aphid predators in lettuce fields. This approach has the potential to mitigate lettuce pest issues and reduce reliance on insecticides, thus promoting more sustainable pest management.

ABSTRACTSpiders (Araneae) are generalist predators in agroecosystems and may contribute to biological control in canola (Brassica napus L. and B. rapa L.). However, their diversity and community structure remain understudied in the Canadian Prairies. To address this knowledge gap, we surveyed spider assemblages in the Aspen Parkland region of Alberta, Canada, using pitfall traps placed at field edges and interiors during the 2021 and 2022 growing seasons. We collected 968 spiders in 74 species across 14 families, with Lycosidae and Linyphiidae being the most abundant. Spider abundance was consistently greater at field edges, although family‐level composition varied by year and location. In 2023, we tested pitfall trap modifications to improve spider retention, evaluating (1) trap diameter, (2) preservative substrate (glass beads vs. propylene glycol), and (3) polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE; Fluon, a non‐stick fluoropolymer) coated trap interiors (to reduce friction and prevent escape). This was tested across canola habitats adjacent to grass‐ or tree‐dominated non‐crop habitat edges. Trap catches, and resulting richness and diversity, were significantly higher in large PTFE‐treated traps, particularly in treed‐edge habitats compared to other treatment combinations. These results underscore the importance of non‐crop field margins in maintaining spider diversity and highlight design improvements to optimize passive sampling. Our findings provide a regional baseline for spider assemblages in canola systems and offer methodological advances to support future ecological monitoring and conservation biological control efforts in Prairie agroecosystems.

Abstract Western bean cutworm, Striacosta albicosta (Smith; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a major pest of corn and dry beans in its historic and expanded ranges in the North American western Great Plains and Great Lakes Region, respectively. In corn, S. albicosta ear feeding damage can significantly reduce yield and introduce avenues for secondary fungal infections. Management practices currently rely on transgenic crops expressing effective Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) protein, of which only the VIP3A protein is effective against S. albicosta, and/or labor‐intensive scouting and chemical control. However, limited research on biological control options for this critical pest has been conducted. This study identifies key trophic interactions between S. albicosta and predatory arthropods in corn fields. Field surveys identified a community of 21 predator taxa present in Nebraska corn fields where S. albicosta eggs and larvae were present. The most common taxa were as follows: Hippodamia convergens (Guérin‐Méneville; Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), Coleomegilla maculata (De Geer; Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), Orius insidiosus (Say; Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), and green lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Additionally, molecular gut‐content analysis via PCR confirmed the predation of S. albicosta by several well‐known biological control agents, including H. convergens, O. insidiosus, C. maculata, and Chrysopidae larvae and adults. Coleomegilla maculata consumed more S. albicosta eggs and larvae than H. convergens in feeding trials, although egg consumption by C. maculata was unaffected by the presence of corn pollen, an important supplemental food for this species. Exploring the trophic interactions between S. albicosta and its predators will provide information necessary to improve conservation biological control for S. albicosta integrated pest management.

The alfalfa weevil Hypera postica Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is one of the most destructive alfalfa pests in the world, resulting in substantial economic losses. However, the amount of damage can be reduced by larval parasitoids of the genus Bathyplectes Förster (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) as a conservation biological control strategy. Parasitoids are currently identified by morphological body characteristics, cocoon morphology, and/or DNA analysis, but geometric morphometrics (GM) applied to the wing vein arrangement may also reveal differences between specimens. We distinguished 61 B. anurus (Thomson) and 41 B. curculionis (Thomson) specimens, based on the appearance of the cocoon. GM revealed statistically significant differences in wing vein patterns and fore wing shapes between species, but not between sexes within the same species. The 1 M + 1R1 cell, also known as the horsehead cell, was revealed to be an easy and reliable morphological character for species differentiation. Despite the New World literature, this is the first European report providing a visual method to differentiate B. anurus from B. curculionis. This study highlights the importance of precise species identification methods, such as geometric morphometry. It can contribute to a better implementation of biological control strategies against the alfalfa weevil in Spain and other Mediterranean countries.

Abstract The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, is a highly polyphagous pest, native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas that invaded the Australian mainland in 2020. Since its incursion into Australia, management has largely relied on the use of different synthetic insecticides. Given pesticide resistance genes and reduced sensitivities to a variety of pesticides are already present in the population, there is a need to investigate alternative management approaches that can be incorporated into an IPM programme such as biological control. A fundamental step in establishing the potential of biological control is identifying the potential natural enemies that may be deployed in pest management. In this study, we undertook a series of surveys to identify potential parasitoids for fall armyworm and assessed parasitism rates in Western Australia (WA) and the Northern Territory (NT). Approximately, 1900 larvae of fall armyworm were sourced from maize, sweet corn, okra and sorghum fields, reared and observed for the emergence of parasitoids. Ten species of larval parasitoids from five families were recorded during the surveys with Cotesia ruficrus (Haliday) (56.14%) and Exorista xanthaspis (Wiedemann) (50%) being the most abundant larval species in WA and NT, respectively. Other parasitoids found include four recently described species, Euplectrus frugiperdata Fagan‐Jeffries, Chelonus trojanus Fagan‐Jeffries, Coccygidium necatrix Atkin‐Zaldivar & Fagan‐Jeffries, Coccygidium mellosiheroine Atkin‐Zaldivar & Fagan‐Jeffries, and previously named species, Megaselia scalaris (Loew) and some unidentified Tachinidae. Two species of egg parasitoids, Trichogramma pretiosum (Riley) and Telenomus remus (Nixon), were recovered with field parasitism rates of 7.81% and 10.16%, respectively. Overall, the occurrence of potential egg and larval parasitoids in Australian horticulture systems provides a unique platform to develop a conservation or augmentative biological control approach to manage fall armyworm in Australia.

ABSTRACTThe selection of suitable food resources for parasitoids plays an important role in their effectiveness as biological control agents. We investigated how different diets influence resource allocation in two Tephritidae fruit fly parasitoids, Fopius arisanus and F. caudatus. The diets consisted of pollen from cotton Gossypium hirsutum, coatbutton Tridax procumbens and maize Zea mays, a mixture of pollen with honey, and honey alone. Longevity, parasitism, lifetime fertility and life table parameters such as net reproductive rate (Rο), intrinsic rate of increase (rm), finite rate of increase (λ) and mean generation time (Tc) were assessed. Our findings show that the two Braconidae species consumed pollen with a preference of coatbotton and cotton pollen. Host‐deprived F. arisanus with access to cotton and maize pollen mixed with honey exhibited increased longevity by 14% and 27%, respectively, compared to honey alone. However, when host eggs were available, the addition of pollen did not affect F. arisanus longevity, mortality risk, as well as parasitoids emergence compared to honey alone. The addition of coatbutton and maize pollen to honey resulted in higher fecundity, parasitism and superparasitism in F. arisanus. Furthermore, maize pollen mixed with honey led to a higher proportion of female offspring and an increased net reproductive rate (R₀) in F. arisanus compared to other diet treatments. In F. caudatus, adding maize pollen to honey decreased longevity compared to honey alone, while other pollen types showed no significant effect. Our findings highlight the importance of assessing plant pollen suitability before implementing plant‐derived nutritional supplements in mass‐rearing or conservation biological control.

Habitat manipulation through non-crop vegetation management is a strategy in conservation biological control, and using native plants is attractive because they can also help in biodiversity conservation. The potential for nectar provision of 13 flowering species native to Chile, and two introduced, was evaluated considering Mastrus ridens (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Nectar availability was studied through flower phenology, accessibility through flower and parasitoid morphology, and suitability through longevity when exposed to nectar solutions or cut flowers. Most species had long flowering periods, potentially making nectar available when adults are active, but they differed in nectar accessibility and profitability. Of the 13 native species, nectar was easily accessible for M. ridens in Cistanthe grandiflora, Sphaeralcea obtusiloba, Andeimalva chilensis, and Lycium chilense. None of the nine native species tested with nectar solutions increased longevity, but with cut flowers, parasitoids lived longer with the natives Teucrium bicolor and S. obtusiloba, and the introduced Fagopyrum esculentum, making them candidates for M. ridens conservation. Females lived longer with cut flowers of T. bicolor and S. obtusiloba than with their nectar solutions. In conclusion, using the native flowering species Teucrium bicolor and Sphaeralcea obtusiloba in agroecosystems can serve biological control and biodiversity conservation.

The widespread use of chemical pesticides in agriculture poses significant threats to the environment, biodiversity, and human health. Regulating ecosystem services, particularly natural pest control by predators and parasitoids, offer sustainable alternatives to reduce dependence on chemical inputs. This study explores the mechanisms and efficacy of these services, emphasizing the benefits of promoting biodiversity, enhancing habitat complexity, and adopting conservation biological control. Findings demonstrate that these practices can effectively reduce pesticide use while maintaining crop productivity. The study advocates for ecosystem-based approaches to foster sustainable agriculture and provides actionable recommendations for policymakers, farmers, and stakeholders. Keywords: Regulating Ecosystem Services, Chemical Pesticide Reduction, Natural Pest Control, Integrated Pest Management, Sustainable Agriculture

Owlet moths (Lepidoptera: Noctuoidea) are among the most threatening pests of soybean and maize systems under intensive cropping in tropical and subtropical regions. Their high dispersal, larval polyphagia, and voracious feeding behavior often lead to severe grain production losses. Many parasitoids are associated with owlet moths; however, the ecological importance of larval parasitism in the soybean-maize crop rotation of the Brazilian savanna remains uncertain. We assessed larval parasitism in major lepidopteran pests of soybean and maize crops over three agricultural seasons in eight fields across Brazil's central-west region. Parasitic wasps were more common than tachinids on larvae of all lepidopteran species in both soybean and maize fields over the years. The larval parasitism rate by wasps averaged 9.7% in soybean fields and 13.6% in maize fields, whereas tachinids accounted for only 1.7% of parasitized larvae across both crops. The parasitism rate of Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner was low in all soybean fields (< 4.9%), in contrast to the ones for Chrysodeixis includens (Walker) (5.9 to 32.5%) and the Spodoptera Guenée complex (4.2 to 29.2%). In maize, parasitism rates of Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) ranged from 8.4 to 26.0% among fields, primarily by Ichneumonidae. The consistent presence of wasps, such as Cotesia Cameron and Campoletis Förster, parasitizing multiple hosts across all soybean and maize fields and seasons highlights their role in the natural biological control of caterpillars in the soybean-maize crop succession. In this sense, this study discusses relevant aspects of conservation biological control within multiple cropping systems.

Conservation biological control in forest: A case study with the pine processionary moth

Spotted lanternfly (Lycorma delicatula White, (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae)) is a non-native, invasive pest with a broad host range that has rapidly spread since its discovery in the United States in 2014. Managing emerging invasive pests can be challenging as repeated insecticide inputs can lead to resistance and impact non-target organisms. Alternative strategies, such as biological control, reduce risks but require extensive investigation before implementation. A recent community science study suggests that arthropods are major predators of L. delicatula. However, this pest can sequester toxins from its preferred host, tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), which may defend it from predation. Thus, we tested a variety of predatory arthropods against all life stages of L. delicatula to determine if they would avoid prey fed on A. altissima compared to other host plants. Predatory arthropods did not show a preference when given a choice between L. delicatula reared with access to A. altissima compared to those reared on alternative hosts. We then tested 10 commercially available or easily field-collected generalist predators to determine if these potential biological control agents could reduce L. delicatula populations. Spined soldier bugs (Podisus maculiventris (Say, Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)), Carolina mantids (Stagmomantis carolina (Johansson, Mantodea: Mantidae)), and Chinese mantids (Tenodera sinensis (Saussure, Mantodea: Mantidae)) were the most effective at reducing prey populations, indicating they have promise as effective natural control agents. Our results also suggest that conservation and/or augmentation biological control using generalist predators already present in the landscape could be a useful management strategy for L. delicatula.

Agricultural drainage ditches contain a variety of non-crop vegetation, including potential sources of alternate hosts and food for hymenopteran parasitoids that provide conservation biological control on adjacent farm fields. To assess the patterns of family-level diversity of hymenopteran parasitoids, we surveyed ditch and adjacent crop habitats during June, July, and August 2021-2023, using yellow sticky traps over one week. We sampled two agricultural drainage ditches on each of five farms on the Delmarva Peninsula, eastern USA. We collected 36,725 specimens and identified 29 families across 738 sticky traps. Parasitoid diversity was greater in agricultural ditches than in adjacent fields. While parasitoid family diversity and abundance varied across the farms, ditches within a farm were similar. Within crop fields, diversity was greater at 1.5 m from agricultural ditches than at 9.1 m from the ditches. For several well-sampled families, greater abundance on one farm relative to others extended to both ditches and adjacent crops. Our findings indicate that agricultural drainage ditches serve as an existing beneficial semi-natural habitat for parasitoids on farms. Further research into ditch management practices may reveal methods of enhancing parasitoid abundance and conservation biological control while requiring relatively little investment from farm managers.

Conservation biological control (CBC) is the application of agricultural practices that utilize insectary plants to conserve and enhance natural enemies, thereby increasing their efficiency to suppress pests. Most of the insectary plants used in CBC are non-native invasive insectary plants, which are costly and pose threats to the local ecosystems and biodiversity. Alternative to non-native insectary plants, the use of native plants is proposed. Hence, the aim of this study is to identify native plant species that can be used as alternatives to non-native insectary plants to conserve and promote indigenous natural enemies (INEs) for sustainable pest management. To achieve this, first, we bio-prospected the surrounding habitats of organic fields in the western region of Japan (i.e., Hiroshima Prefecture) to identify native plant species as prospective native insectary plants. As a result, among various Japanese native plants surveyed, Polygonaceae plant species seem to host a variety of INEs, showing potential as a native insectary plant. We then conducted open field experiments to test the role of Polygonaceae plants in promoting INEs, thereby indirectly suppressing pest densities on vegetable crops such as eggplants. Results show that significantly high densities of INEs (green lacewing, p = 0.024; Orius spp., p = 0.001: GLM) were observed on eggplants with Polygonaceae plants compared to eggplants without Polygonaceae plants, leading to a significant reduction in pest densities (thrips, p = 0.000; whiteflies, p = 0.002: GLM) on the eggplants with Polygonaceae plants. Furthermore, molecular analysis revealed that Orius spp., as a representative INE in this study, migrated from Polygonaceae plants to eggplants, suggesting that Polygonaceae plants may conserve and promote INEs to vegetable crops, resulting in pest suppression. Here, we discuss the roles of Polygonaceae plants (and other native plants) in regulating pest densities on crops.

Conservation biological control in agriculture primarily relies on avoiding pesticides that may harm key natural enemies. In temperate tree fruit crops, the European earwig, Forficula auricularia (L.) has only recently become appreciated as an important predator of economic pests, particularly woolly aphids and pear psylla. Therefore, the non-target effects of orchard pesticides on earwigs are largely understudied. This is particularly true for herbicides, which earwigs are likely to be exposed to due to their foraging behavior moving between the canopy and the ground cover. We tested residues of formulated pesticides (8 insecticides and 7 herbicides) commonly used in tree fruit crops for lethal and sublethal (movement, predation rate) effects on adult female earwigs. Two herbicides, paraquat and glufosinate, and one insecticide, spinetoram, were acutely toxic to earwigs within 72 h. No tested pesticides altered earwigs' movement or resting behavior compared to the control. The insecticides spinosad and cyantraniliprole and the herbicides 2,4-D, glufosinate, halosulfuron, rimsulfuron, and oxyfluorfen reduced earwig predation on green peach aphids. Therefore, these pesticides may reduce earwig predation on pests in orchards. Our results suggest that some pesticides are of greater risk, and thus, should be carefully considered or better timed when used in tree fruit orchards where earwigs are considered for conservation or augmentative biological control.