Beneath-the-surface nitrogen placement sustains maize productivity and soil health under long-term conservation agriculture in the NW Indo-Gangetic Plains

Weed management is a key to the adoption of conservation agriculture practices in Sub-Saharan Africa. This study assessed the effect of conservation agriculture practices, strip-tillage and direct mulch-based cropping system on weed emergence, biomass and community structure in cotton-based cropping systems in northern Benin. The experiment was conducted in 2023 and 2024 using a randomized complete block design with three replications under three cropping systems: conventional tillage, strip tillage (cotton in biannual rotation with maize-cowpea intercropping over strip tillage) and direct mulch-based cropping system (cotton in three-season rotation with maize and Stylosanthes guianensis intercropping and sorghum and soybean intercropping over direct mulch-based cropping system). Weed emergence and species were inventoried at seven-day intervals starting from the first rainfall triggering their germination. Weed biomass was measured at each weeding. Conservation agriculture systems significantly reduced weed emergence compared to conventional tillage. The reductions were 15 % (cotton) and 46 % (maize) under strip tillage, and 33 % (cotton) and 56 % (maize) under direct mulch-based cropping system. Weed biomass increased significantly under the strip tillage system, i.e. by 40 % in cotton plots and by 41 % in maize plots. Crop yields were not significantly affected by systems. Weed community structure was shaped by the interaction between the cropping system and seasons, with distinct indicator species associated with cropping systems. These findings demonstrate that conservation agriculture practices can reduce weed emergence and alter weed community structure without compromising yield performance. This is the first study to characterize weed management under conservation agriculture in Sub-Saharan African cotton-based cropping systems. • Conservation agriculture reduced weed emergence and biomass in a cotton-based system. • Strip-tillage reduced weed emergence but increased biomass compared to conventional tillage. • Tillage, intercropping and mulching influenced weed community structure. • No-/strip tillage led to greater dicots weed emergence in a cotton-based system. • There is no significant difference of cotton and maize yields between three systems.

Soil biological quality and microbial functional diversity under diversified conservation agriculture systems in the Indo-Gangetic Plain

Conservation agriculture for climate-resilient agri-food systems: Enhancing productivity, profitability, and sustainability

Conservation Agriculture (CA) aims to enhance the sustainability of agricultural production by minimizing soil disturbance, maintaining soil cover and implementing crop rotations. Despite its potential benefits, the effects of CA on cereal production and soil borne nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions have not yet been investigated at a European scale. We conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis on the effects of CA on cereal yield, yield stability, and N 2 O emissions compared with conventional agriculture (CONV). Further, we performed a spatial-explicit analysis across different pedoclimatic conditions in Europe to identify regions more susceptible to negative impacts. We compiled a dataset of 58 field experiments (a median duration of 7 years) examining the effect of CA on cereal yields (i.e., winter and spring wheat, barley, oats and maize). Additionally, a separate dataset of 11 field experiments (a median duration of 10 years) was assembled to evaluate CA effects on N 2 O emissions. A weighted meta-analysis was conducted, and Cochran`s Q test was applied to evaluate heterogeneity in effect sizes associated with pedoclimatic conditions and agronomic management practices. Maps for Europe were created to evaluate the spatial patterns of yield changes under two tillage scenarios - minimum tillage (MT) and no tillage (NT) - both adhering to the core principles of CA. Overall, CA led to a statistically significant reduction in cereal yields by 3 % (95 % Confidence Interval (CI): 0.2 %–5 %, n = 58) and a decrease in yield stability by 9 % (95 % CI: 3 %–15 %, n = 50) when compared to CONV. A larger yield gap was linked to a higher topsoil clay content and a decreased tillage depth ( p < 0.001). For soils with 30 % clay content, the estimated yield gap was 1 % under MT (15 cm depth) and 4.4 % under NT. N 2 O emissions under CA did not differ from CONV overall (0 %, 95 % CI: –37 % to +67 %, n = 11), but increased significantly when clay content exceeded 30 % ( p < 0.0001), though this result relies on the small dataset available. Overall, this meta-analysis demonstrated a slight reduction in cereal yields under CA across Europe compared to CONV, coupled with a more pronounced decrease in yield stability, but no impact on N 2 O emissions. Top soil clay content was a key moderator that amplified both the yield gap and N 2 O emissions under CA. Consequently, cereal yields in Central and Southern Europe, where the soil clay content is generally higher, are more susceptible to tillage intensity. Thus, MT may offer greater benefits than NT in these regions, provided that the other principles of CA are met. These findings demonstrate that a one-size-fits-all approach to CA is ineffective and highlights the importance of developing region-specific guidelines. This is particularly important regarding the tillage intensity in clay-rich soils. Recognizing the trade-offs associated with CA practices is critical for their effective and widespread adoption across varying pedoclimatic conditions in Europe. • Overall CA effects were a 3% yield loss and a 9% decline in yield stability. • The responses were crop-specific: reductions in maize and wheat, but not in barley. • Minimum tillage practices helped reduce the yield gap. • Yield gap and N 2 O emissions under CA increased with higher soil clay content. • Geospatial analysis identified critical areas for CA adoption in Europe.

Nearing nationwide coverage of the Agricultural Conservation Planning Framework database to facilitate watershed-scale planning

Abstract. Smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) commonly involves limited use of mineral or organic fertilizer, often resulting in severe nutrient limitation. Conservation Agriculture (CA), including crop rotation with legumes and biochar amendments, has been advocated to enhance soil fertility and plant available nitrogen (N). However, CA may affect nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions even in unfertilized agroecosystems. N2O is an important greenhouse (GHG) gas, and understanding the trade-offs between N2O emissions and crop yields in N-poor agroecosystems in SSA is essential. Here we studied crop yield, soil N dynamics and N2O emissions in a double cropping system (pigeon pea–maize rotation) throughout two consecutive cropping seasons (April–October 2023 and October 2023–January 2024) in a Ferralsol in Northern Uganda. The study, conducted at a site which had been left fallow for 3 years, involved pairwise comparison of conventionally tilled systems under crop rotation (Conventional) and continuous maize monocropping (ConventMM). In addition, the effect of tillage systems (Conventional, CA and CA + biochar) under pigeon pea–maize rotation was investigated. We defined CA as reduced tillage with planting basins, crop rotation and residue retention, whereas conventional tillage involved overall ploughing. N2O fluxes were small, ranging from 1.02–51.19 µg N m2 h−1 over the entire period. Short-lived emission peaks were observed following pigeon pea harvest in the crop rotation, which were absent in maize monocropping. Across two growing seasons, area-weighted cumulative N2O emissions for 279 d ranged from 0.46 kg kg N ha−1 in CA + BC treatment to 0.88 kg N ha−1 in the Conventional treatment, respectively. CA + BC reduced area-weighted N2O emissions by 33 % and 66 % compared to Conventional treatment in the first and second season, respectively. In addition, biochar amendments in CA systems also reduced yield-scaled N2O emissions by 48 % across two seasons. In the first season, yield-scaled N2O emissions and N yield scaled N2O emissions were significantly smaller in CA systems with biochar compared to conventional tillage, suggesting that CA and biochar was effective in minimising emissions without reducing pigeon pea yield, in the first year after field clearing.

This study critically evaluates conventional, reduced, and zero tillage systems with a focus on soil and water conservation, residue management, and sustainability in global agriculture and the Indo-Gangetic Plains. A systematic narrative review approach was used, synthesizing peer-reviewed literature (1990-2025) from major scientific databases. Results indicate that zero tillage systems, particularly Happy Seeder-based practices, can enhance soil aggregation, increase infiltration, and improve moisture retention through residue mulching. Quantitative evidence suggests yield gains of 6.8-17%, cost reductions of up to 29%, irrigation savings of 20-30%, and greenhouse gas emission reductions exceeding 50% compared to conventional systems. However, outcomes vary across soil types, climatic conditions, and management practices. Key limitations include herbicide dependence, weed resistance, and socio-economic constraints affecting adoption. The study concludes that conservation tillage offers significant potential for climate-smart agriculture, but its effectiveness depends on region-specific adaptation, integrated nutrient and weed management, and supportive policy frameworks.

Application of biochar in agriculture for effective water resource conservation

Soil microbiomes are foundational to climate-smart agriculture, driving both climate mitigation and adaptation. Microbes contribute to carbon sequestration through necromass formation and glomalin production, while methanotrophs and nosZ-harboring bacteria reduce methane and nitrous oxide emissions with inoculants achieving up to 81% N₂O reduction. For adaptation, microbial mechanisms including ACC deaminase, exopolysaccharides, and phytohormones enhance drought tolerance and nutrient efficiency under climate stress. Key management strategies; conservation agriculture, organic amendments, and stress-adapted native consortia preserve microbial habitats, build soil carbon, and improve crop resilience. Field applications across sub-Saharan Africa, Brazil, and temperate regions demonstrate yield increases up to 43% under drought, fertilizer replacement, and enhanced carbon sequestration. Realizing this potential requires integrated research, supportive policies, harmonized regulations, and farmer engagement to transition toward microbiome-aware farming systems that ensure long-term agricultural resilience and sustainability.

Nitrogen is an essential macronutrient for plant growth, photosynthesis, and grain yield. However, the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of crops remains relatively low, leading to nitrogen losses and environmental concerns. This is particularly important in upland rice because it is a high nitrogen user, but research of its NUE is limited. This literature review explored the contributions of leaf morphology, specifically leaf size and leaf angle, to nitrogen utilization efficiency in upland rice under varying rates of nitrogen fertilization. It also evaluated sustainable nitrogen management practices across diverse cropping systems. Findings reveal that nitrogen fertilization significantly influences leaf development, canopy structure, and nitrogen remobilization, all of which directly affect photosynthetic efficiency and yield. Breeding strategies focusing on moderate leaf size and erect leaf angles improve the nitrogen uptake and use by rice. In addition, sustainable farming practices, including precision nitrogen management, conservation agriculture, and intercropping with legumes, are effective in enhancing NUE and reducing nitrogen losses across various rice production systems. Future research should focus on identifying the thresholds of nitrogen rates that optimize leaf morphology across diverse upland rice genotypes and unravel the genetic and physiological mechanisms linking nitrogen application to leaf development.

Climate change poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity and food security in Nigeria. This study assessed the utilization of Climate Smart Agricultural (CSA) practices by describing the socio-economic characteristics of rural farmers, identifying their sources of information on CSA, documenting CSA practices currently adopted, and examining the constraints hindering widespread utilization. The key findings are that the majority of respondents were male (59.6%) and youths aged 20–35 years (59.6%), with most being married (59.6%) and having small households (79.8%). Although many earned a modest income (₦150,000–₦250,000 annually). A majority lacked access to credit (82.6%), which is a major limitation to CSA investment. CSA information access shows that Radio/TV (60.6%) was the main information source, and only 21.1% received CSA information from extension agents. CSA adoption and duration indicated that conservation agriculture was the most adopted practice (68.8%), and the majority (62.3%) had adopted CSA practices within the last two years, indicating relatively recent exposure while motivations for CSA adoption were improved yield (58.7%), followed by reduced cost (27.5%) and improved soil fertility (13.8%). The challenges to CSA adoption were a lack of technical knowledge (55.1%) and limited access to credit (27.5%) as dominant constraints. However, education (p=0.045, r=0.654) and sex (p=0.036, r=0.560) were significantly related to adoption of CSA practices. Similarly, social media (p=0.007, r=0.429) had a strong, positive relationship with utilization of CSA practices, while Radio/TV (p=0.062, r=0.401), though not too significant, but the positive value, indicates their importance. Therefore, CSA practices and interventions should be holistic to transform agricultural development.

Soil carbon sequestration has emerged as a critical strategy for mitigating climate change while enhancing agricultural sustainability and soil health. Agricultural soils contain a substantial proportion of terrestrial carbon, with the potential to act as either carbon sources or sinks depending on management practices. This review synthesizes current scientific understanding of the carbon sequestration potential of various agronomic practices, including conservation tillage, crop residue management, crop rotation, cover cropping, organic amendments, integrated farming systems, and agroforestry. These practices influence carbon dynamics through biological, physical, and chemical mechanisms that regulate carbon input, transformation, and stabilization in soil systems. Empirical evidence indicates that improved agronomic management can sequester approximately 0.2–1.0 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, depending on soil type, climate, and cropping systems. The review further examines factors affecting sequestration efficiency, including soil texture, mineralogy, climatic variability, and management intensity, highlighting their interactive effects on soil organic carbon accumulation. Methods for measuring and estimating soil carbon, such as field sampling, laboratory analysis, simulation models, and remote sensing tools, are critically evaluated to address uncertainties in carbon accounting. The role of conservation agriculture and organic farming systems in enhancing long-term carbon storage is emphasized, along with their co-benefits in improving soil structure, water retention, nutrient availability, and microbial activity. Constraints such as economic limitations, adoption barriers, measurement challenges, and policy gaps are identified as key obstacles to large-scale implementation. Policy frameworks, carbon credit systems, and payment for ecosystem services are discussed as mechanisms to incentivize adoption of carbon-enhancing practices. Future research priorities include long-term experimental studies, integration of advanced technologies such as precision agriculture and biotechnology, and development of region-specific strategies. The findings underscore the importance of integrated and sustainable agronomic approaches in optimizing soil carbon sequestration, contributing to climate change mitigation, and ensuring resilient agricultural systems.

Global warming is causing climate change (CC) characterized by increased frequency of heatwaves, droughts, erratic rains, hailstorms, cloudbursts, floods, landslides etc. The CC has already adversely affected ecosystems. In spite of efforts to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, which lead to warming, the global temperature during 2011-2020 was 1.1C above that during pre-industrial era. The projections are that warming will continue to increase and adverse effects will intensify particularly in developing countries like India. In India a number of studies have recorded wide spatial variability in rainfall, though, many reported a general overall negative trend since mid-20th century. Further, varying pattern of rainfall has been recorded in three agroclimatic regions of Punjab state, the granary of India. Unseasonal rains followed by spiked temperature during rabi 2021-22 reduced wheat yield In Punjab by 651 kg/ha and by 301 kg/ha in Haryana compared to 2020-21. Further, the grain was of lower quality. During kharif 2022, Southern Rice Black-streaked Dwarf Virus, appeared for the first time in Punjab and Haryana. Some farmers ploughed the affected fields. Adverse weather during rabi 2022-23 also, reduced wheat yield (143-150 kg/ha) in these states. At the national level, erratic weather during rabi 2021-22 and kharif 2022 caused loss about 3 mt of grain of each of wheat and rice. The projected increased adverse effects due to intensified CC include food insecurity. Thus, there is an emergent need to accelerate implementation of adaptation and mitigation strategies in agriculture. Conservation agriculture conserves land and water resources, environment and biodiversity, reduces heat and drought stresses, captures carbon and improves soil health. The adaptation options include cultivar improvement, altering growing seasons, crop diversification, and sustainable soil and water resource management. In the process of adaptive management of crop production, adjusting sowing dates and breeding cultivars having varying duration in consonance with CC has been one of the central aspects. Shifting sowing dates to find appropriate crop cultivation season is a low-cost measure. However, cultivar development is time and resource consuming. Novel biotechnological tools enable fast cultivar development with precision, and facilitate mobilization of genes in wild-weedy relatives, which are rich in genes conferring resistance/tolerance to biotic and biotic stresses, required to combat CC challenge. In view of CC stress on water resources, improving water use efficiency has gained importance. Sensor-based micro-irrigation/fertigation has great potential to enhance water and fertilizer use efficiency. Similarly, the application of other smart technologies like nanotechnology, sensor-based pesticide application, bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides, need to be mobilised. In view of agro-ecological diversity in India, right-sized region-specific technology packages have to be developed implying that crop research will expand exponentially. This needs strengthening of human resources and institutional infrastructure, expanding and linking basic and applied researches, and fortifying inter-disciplinary/inter-institutional collaborations to develop and diffuse technology innovations. Enabling factors include enhanced funding and international cooperation. All out efforts are needed to have more climate-resilient agriculture.

Conservation Agriculture (CA) is pivotal to achieve sustainable intensification, yet the global efficacy of its core practice, conservation tillage (CT), remains debated regarding the trade-offs between crop productivity and ecosystem services across diverse environmental contexts. Here, we conducted a second-order meta-analysis, synthesizing 69 published meta-analyses, to elucidate the context-dependent drivers regulating the "win-win" outcomes of CT. Globally, CT reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 5%, increased soil organic carbon sequestration by 21%, increased soil fertility by 11%, and reduced soil erosion by 12%, all while maintaining crop yields comparable to conventional tillage. However, CT can also emerge as a partial trade-off between crop yields and ecosystem services, notably between crop yield and GHG mitigation. These trade-offs were strongly regulated by climatic and edaphic conditions as well as management intensity. For instance, strong synergies between crop productivity and multiple ecosystem services were more pronounced in (semi-)arid regions characterized by low temperatures and low precipitation, as well as in coarse-textured alkaline soils. Furthermore, integrating CT with residue retention and crop rotations maximized these synergies, mitigating potential yield penalties. Collectively, our synthesis demonstrates that context-specific refinement of CT implementation is essential to reconcile agricultural productivity with ecosystem services, thereby advancing climate-resilient agricultural systems globally.

Triple impact: Biochar, no-tillage, and cover crops for soil carbon enhancement and climate resilience in soybean farming

Artificial Intelligence–Driven Assessment of Conservation Agriculture Practices on Crop Water Productivity, Grain Quality and Soil Health of Wheat in Typic Ustochrept Soils of Western U. P.

This review synthesizes recent research on the effects of contrasting irrigation regimes on the genotypic performance of wheat, with particular emphasis on productivity and water use efficiency (WUE). Adequate irrigation during critical growth stages such as crown root initiation, flowering, and grain filling enhances plant growth, photosynthetic activity, biomass accumulation, and yield components. In contrast, water deficit conditions reduce stomatal conductance, canopy development, and grain formation, ultimately limiting yield potential. However, optimized irrigation strategies, including deficit irrigation and improved irrigation scheduling, can enhance WUE while maintaining acceptable yield levels. The review also highlights the significant role of genotypic variability in determining wheat performance under varying irrigation conditions. Wheat genotypes exhibit considerable variation in morphological and physiological traits such as root architecture, relative water content, chlorophyll stability, and stay-green characteristics, which contribute to improved drought tolerance and water productivity. Furthermore, genotype × environment interactions play a critical role in determining genotype adaptability across different irrigation regimes. Stability analysis methods such as regression models, AMMI analysis, and GGE biplot techniques are widely used to identify stable and high-performing genotypes under diverse environmental conditions. In addition, agronomic strategies including integrated irrigation and nutrient management, conservation agriculture practices, soil moisture conservation techniques, and crop residue management can significantly enhance wheat productivity under limited irrigation conditions. Integrating improved irrigation practices with the development of drought-tolerant wheat varieties will be essential for sustaining crop productivity under water-limited environments. Overall, adopting efficient irrigation management and selecting genotypes with higher water use efficiency are key strategies for achieving sustainable wheat production in the face of increasing water scarcity and climate change.

Enhancing productivity, profitability, and sustainability of wheat production through conservation agriculture strategies

Managing tillage intensity and diversifying crop rotation are important sustainability levers for conservation agriculture (CA) with the potential to enhance crop resilience, resource efficiency, and yield stability. Accordingly, this study aimed to determine the effect of reduced tillage intensities and cereal–legume rotation systems on the agronomic and physiological performance of rainfed durum wheat grown under Mediterranean semi-arid conditions. To this end, a two cropping seasons field experiment was conducted in northeast Tunisia where the combined effects of two reduced tillage intensities (minimum and no-tillage; MT and NT) and two legume-based crop rotation systems (biennial and triennial; B and T) were compared to the more traditional conventionally tilled monocropping system (CT and M). Crop rotation, particularly when integrated with no-tillage (NT), significantly improved wheat development and grain yield, along with key yield attributes such as thousand-kernel weight and spike density. The interaction between tillage and crop sequence was highly influential; for instance, the NT × T (no-tillage × triennial rotation) combination achieved the highest grain yields (240 and 236 g m−2 in 2020–2021 and 2021–2022, respectively), while the CT × M (conventional tillage × monoculture) interaction resulted in the lowest productivity (143 and 135 g m−2). Physiologically, the integration of reduced tillage and legume–cereal rotations optimized the photosynthetic apparatus, as evidenced by significantly improved chlorophyll fluorescence parameters. However, a prominent trade-off was identified: while NT × T maximized productivity, conventional tillage (CT) maintained superior grain protein (18.6%) and gluten concentrations, indicating a nitrogen dilution effect in high-yielding conservation systems. These results demonstrate that while no-tillage and triennial rotations (faba bean–wheat–barley) are robust strategies for climate-resilient yields in semi-arid environments, they must be coupled with optimized nitrogen management to offset quality declines. Consequently, this study establishes the NT × T interaction as a superior model for sustainable rainfed farming, provided that nutrient synchronization is addressed to ensure nutritional security under increasingly unpredictable Mediterranean climates.