Congruity Theory Research Articles

Not every part of a tree is a tree: A reply to Matta and Frank (2025).

Our recent article on congruence research (Yao & Ma, 2023) advocated the need to adopt a holistic approach to studying congruence effects and to developing stronger congruence theories. Matta and Frank (2025) offered an insightful commentary on our article, highlighting theoretical and empirical/inferential concerns. These concerns include (a) whether the exact correspondence effect is the theoretical goal and (b) when researchers should consider applied conditions or reported conditions in congruence research. While Matta and Frank acknowledged the value of the holistic perspective, they recommended testing one's hypothesized form of congruence as the goal of future congruence research. We thank Matta and Frank for bringing up these issues. These issues have gained increased relevance and urgency especially after Yao and Ma (2023) identified several common issues in published congruence studies and offered suggestions for improvements. This reply is intended to clarify and extend our arguments on the holistic perspective, illustrating how this perspective can help address the concerns they raised and further advance congruence research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Influencer Marketing: Assessing the Effect of Self-Influencer Coungruence, Parasocial Relationships, Credibility and Electronic Word Of Mouth (E-Wom) on Social Media Tiktok

Purpose – This study aims to explore the impact of social media influencers (SMIs) intimate self-influencer congruence on consumers’ electronic word of mouth (e-WOM), with a focus on the role of parasocial relationships and congruence among the influencer, product and consumer. The study finds its theoretical foundation in parasocial theory and self- congruency theory. Design/methodology/approach – This study employs a quantitative approach, utilizing a sample of 170 collected survey responses. The proposed hypotheses are evaluated using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Findings – This study reveals the sequential mediating effect of parasocial relationships and credibility on the link between self-influencer congruence and electronic word of mouth (e-WOM) on TikTok. Credibility plays a significant role in converting parasocial connections into consumer purchase intent. These findings highlight the importance of selecting credible influencers who align with brand values and audience interests to utilize social media marketing. Originality/value – This study brings new perspectives by identifying a limiting factor that shapes the impact of self-influencer congruence on electronic word of mouth (e-WOM) via sequential mediating effect of parasocial relationships and credibility. In doing so, this study provides a novel perspective in understanding the dynamics between SMIs and consumers in the rapidly evolving marketing landscape

A STUDY OF SUBJECTIVE CAREER SUCCESS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS OF MIDDLE-LEVEL HOTEL MANAGERS IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY

The present study investigates whether the Big Five personality traits can predict subjective career success. It uses socio-analytic and career congruence theories to predict individual outcomes, such as subjective career success. Data were obtained from 33 four- and five-star resorts and hotels operated by international and domestic chains in Vietnam. A total of 391 middle-level hotel managers were approached, using specific quotas for age, gender, education, and work experience. The final valid sample included 285 of the 297 respondents willing to participate. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were employed to investigate the hypothesized correlations between the constructs. Extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and agreeableness were found to positively predict, and neuroticism to negatively predict subjective career success. This result extends our understanding of the role of personality elements in determining career success. It also confirms the necessity of congruence between career success and personality. This result is crucial for those who provide career counseling and advice because, by knowing the connection between personality traits and subjective career success, they can better guide middle-level hotel managers in deciding on a relevant and appropriate career path.

“Can I Speak to the Bossman?” Sources of Stress, Behavioral Adaptations, and Role Incongruency in Female Farmers☆

AbstractTraditional gender expectations and societal norms, along with unique occupational and organizational policies, may make it difficult for women to work in the agricultural industry. The purpose of this study is to apply Role Congruity Theory to female farmers' experience of occupational stress, and to explore behavioral adaptations used to cope with working in a male‐dominated occupation in areas where conventional gender norms are more prominent. Structured interviews were conducted with 16 female farm owners and managers and a thematic analysis approach was used to analyze data. Female farmers reported stress associated with gender stereotyping, misogyny, role expectations, and lack of respect. This study found that women are perceived as incongruent with the male‐dominated agricultural sector, and experience prejudice and harassment substantiating Role Congruity Theory. In addition, participants reported behavioral adaptations such as adopting masculine traits, dressing differently, and overworking or overcompensating, which may be contributing to higher stress levels. Women participating in this study took pride in defying expectations and succeeding in a male‐dominated occupation, but more effort should be made to promote diversity and inclusion in the agricultural industry.

How Can Religion Shape Pro‐Environmental Behavior in a Materialistic World? Contrasting Idealism With Realism Religious Epics

ABSTRACTDespite extensive research on the influence of religion on pro‐environmental behavior, little attention has been paid to the role of religious epics—that is, narratives that embody the core beliefs and moral values of religious traditions—as a mechanism for promoting such behavior. Using Hinduism as a case, this research seeks to bridge this gap by contrasting the orientations of idealism in the Ramayana with realism in the Mahabharata, offering a better understanding of how these distinct orientations in religious epics can shape pro‐environmental behavior. Utilizing belief congruence theory as a theoretical framework, this four‐study research examines altruism as a mediator and materialism as a moderator in understanding the role of religious epics in shaping pro‐environmental behavior. The findings suggest that the idealistic orientation of the Ramayana fosters stronger pro‐environmental behavior through heightened altruistic values, whereas the realistic orientation of the Mahabharata shows a less pronounced effect, which is further attenuated by materialism. These insights not only contribute to the theoretical discourse on consumer behavior, ethics, religion, and sustainability, but also offer practical implications for leveraging religious epics in fostering pro‐environmental behavior in a materialistic world.

Role Incongruity of Women in United States Law Enforcement: A National Survey Exploring Global and Specific Resistance in a Gendered Organization

ABSTRACTSince the 1990s, there has been a lot of research on women in policing and resistance to their entry into the field. Much of the research has examined specific resistance (i.e., individualized resistance based on perceived performance), whereas fewer studies today examine global resistance (i.e., resistance to women police in general). Applying role congruity theory, global and specific resistance by men coworkers, administrators, and the public was examined for a national sample of 358 women in United States law enforcement. It was found that women in law enforcement received slightly more global resistance from the public, whereas men coworkers displayed more specific resistance, and specific resistance was more likely to occur in areas related to the perceived ability of women to handle a masculine job. Multivariate analyses revealed that law enforcement remains a gendered organization with continued role incongruity for women.

Why are women underrepresented in senior management? A study in the Turkish hospitality industry

This study aims to establish the causes for underrepresentation of women in senior management positions in the hospitality industry in Turkey using role congruity theory. The study used the qualitative research method and included semi-structured interviews conducted with 20 women who are managers in the hospitality industry. The study identifies organizational, social, and individual factors that prevent women from rising to senior management positions. This study is crucial to demonstrate how the perceived incongruity between female gender roles and leadership roles hinders the representation of women in senior management. Further, the present study contributes to the literature and benefits hospitality professionals by revealing the challenges that women encounter in their journey to reach senior manager positions.

A test of target congruence theory on cyber dating abuse among youth

While a number of studies have provided support for target congruence theory in explaining various forms of physical victimization, researchers have started to examine the efficacy of the theory on cyber victimization, specifically cyberstalking. However, no study to date has examined the applicability of this theory to cyber abuse victimization among youth in dating relationships. To this end, the current study applied target congruence theory to examine the influence of target vulnerability, target gratifiability, and target antagonism on cyber dating abuse victimization experienced by high school youth. A subset of data obtained from the Technology, Teen Dating Violence and Abuse, and Bullying in Three States (n = 2,250) showed support for the theory. More specifically, two out of the three concepts used to capture target vulnerability (depression and drug use) and two out of the three measures of target antagonism (hostility and manipulation/fear) were significant in predicting cyber dating abuse victimization, while target gratifiability (sexual cyber perpetration) was also significant. An overall review of the results, as well as the study’s limitations and suggestions for future research, are discussed.

Women’s career and imposter syndrome: moderating effects of female role model and diversity management in the hospitality and tourism sector

PurposeThis study aims to examine the influence of imposter syndrome on women’s careers in the hospitality and tourism industry drawing on the role congruity theory of prejudice.Design/methodology/approachEmploying cross-sectional design, this research analyzed quantitative data from 574 women at various managerial levels using the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) technique.FindingsThe results show that imposter syndrome significantly impacts women employees’ engagement and organizational commitment. The study found that higher levels of diversity management and female role models have a stronger moderating effect on the relationship between imposter syndrome, career expectations, work-family balance, employee engagement, career advancement and organizational commitment whilst lower levels of diversity management and female role models have a weaker moderating effect on these relationships.Research limitations/implicationsThis study presents a new theoretical perspective on female employees’ challenges to career advancement. It expands the knowledge of imposter phenomenon and role congruity theory of prejudice, illustrating how imposter syndrome can be influenced not only by individual traits but also by institutional, situational or stereotypical factors.Practical implicationsThis work provides valuable insights for hotel policymakers and managers to implement policies that alleviate imposter syndrome and contribute to women’s career development and gender equality in workplaces.Originality/valueThis study can serve to raise awareness of women’s issues in the workplace and offer insightful guidance to organizations to promote diversity and women’s leadership. These pertain to how realistic human resources policies can be used to promote the well-being of hospitality and tourism women employees.

Me First or We First: An Examination of the Positive and Negative Effects of Value Priority Congruence on Individual and Group‐Level Outcomes

ABSTRACTWe build from and advance value congruence theory and research by introducing new insights related to how value congruence may have different consequences when considered in light of job demands. Specifically, we apply both the theory of basic values and job demands‐resources theory to understand when and why objective value priority congruence with other organizational members results in positive or negative outcomes for both individuals and groups. Using data from a large quick service organization, we examine how employee‐supervisor and employee‐group value priority congruence and incongruence, on social or personal values, relate to both affective and behavioral individual‐level outcomes (employee engagement and turnover), and group‐level outcomes (collective engagement, customer satisfaction, sales, and group turnover). The results suggest that value priority congruence is associated with less employee engagement and higher turnover when the shared values represent personal (rather than social) value priorities because personal values are misaligned with the demands of the job. In some instances incongruence results in more positive outcomes than congruence on personal values. This pattern of results is consistent across both employee‐supervisor and employee‐group foci. Further, groups in which members predominantly prioritize personal values have lower collective engagement; resulting in significantly lower customer satisfaction and lower sales compared to groups with a majority of members who prioritize values aligned with job demands (social values). Altogether, this research helps explain when value congruence will be positive, and why value incongruence can be more beneficial than value congruence in some instances.

A Discussion on the Solution(s) of the Diophantine Equation 3<sup>x</sup> + 15<sup>y</sup> =Z<sup>2</sup>

The absence of a generalized method for solving Diophantine equations having more unknowns than a number of equations is a challenge for researchers in different fields. The presence of the Diophantine equation is reported in the study of the Hydrogen spectrum, quantum Hall effect, chemistry, cryptography, etc. Some special types of Diophantine equations could be addressed with the help of Catalan’s conjecture and Congruence theory. The Diophantine equation 3x + 15y =z2 is addressed in this paper to find the solution(s) in positive integers. It is found that the equation has only two solutions of (x,y,z) as (1,0,2) and (0,1,4) in non-negative integers.

Lessons learned from the experiences of newly qualified therapeutic radiography students who transitioned to work during the Covid-19 pandemic.

The Covid-19 pandemic raised profound questions regarding healthcare values and responsibility for managing collective and individual needs. This context presents a unique opportunity to explore the experiences of newly qualified therapeutic radiographers transitioning to work. An interpretivist qualitative design used one-to-one, semi-structured interviews. Questions based on previous findings and person-environment congruence theory focussed on how the reality of transition compared to expectations and the feelings and attitudes this transition generated. Data analysis used a thematic framework approach. Eleven participants had worked as new Band 5 therapeutic radiographers for at least 12 months in English and Welsh departments. Three related themes were: the transitional state (the psychological nature of transition); professional socialisation (integration was co-constructed by the individual and department, with some conflict evident between the needs of the two parties); motivation (data described a u-shaped arc in level of motivation towards learning, encompassing early aspiration, turning to apathy and then anticipation of new beginnings.) CONCLUSION: Whilst a person's motivation relates to the extent that their expectations are met regarding the pace of professional development, preceptorship packages should support the psychological aspect of transition as much as external indicators such as competencies. Recognition of new registrants' individual skills and aptitudes at an organisational level is key to supporting integration. The pandemic could be seen as an extreme way to reduce a complex multifactorial transitional event to its constituent parts. Personalised one-to-one mentorship is likely to be the optimal way to support psychological aspects of transition for all preceptees. Senior teams can foster compassionate leadership that enables the sense of having a contributing role within the organisation, which recognises individual skills and aptitudes.

Time Dilation in Motivational Congruence Theory's Paradigm.

Time dilation is an important issue in the field of physics. Introduced by the special relativity theory, it means that the time duration spent by an entity to reach a certain destination depends on the movement and speed of the entity. Time dilation has been widely addressed in other disciplines, including philosophy, psychology, and motivation. However, it has produced practical and theoretical controversies in the literature. The new version of relativity theory resolves these issues by extending time dilation to conceptual and mental factors and taking a process-based approach to the development of universe. The purpose of this paper is to discuss time dilation in different scientific arenas and explicate it in motivation from the perspective of motivational congruence theory (MCT). The theory provides a new explanation for the underlying mechanisms of time dilation as a mental phenomenon in motivation. According to MCT, a congruence between the context and extrinsic and intrinsic motivations escalates overall motivation. This, in turn, results in high levels of effort and engagement towards the task and leads to mental time dilation. That is, the individual becomes so engaged with the task that their subjective estimation of time duration becomes shorter, compared to an objective measurement of the elapsed time. The study provides hypotheses for further empirical research. MCT's view to time dilation aligns with advances in the fields of physics and philosophy. It contributes to the literature by presenting a new explanation for mental time dilation and elaborating the motivational mechanisms that underlie this phenomenon.

The role of masculine and feminine gender enactment in hospitality leadership

PurposeThe stereotypical assumptions of what it means to be hegemonically masculine and to be a leader are aligned in current society, potentially creating role incongruity for anyone who does not fit into this definition. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether masculine and feminine leadership traits of men and women hospitality managers affect employees’ intention to trust leaders and organizational attractiveness.Design/methodology/approachExplanatory mixed methods were used. First, two experiments (Study 1 = woman manager, n = 137; Study 2 = man manager, n = 117) were conducted with current hospitality employees to test the interaction of masculine versus feminine enactment and the leadership gender composition (3%, 23% or 53% women) on organizational attractiveness and intent to trust the leader. Results did not align with the theories; therefore, three focus groups were held with 13 current hospitality employees.FindingsResults indicate a shift toward the preference for communal (feminine) characteristics in hospitality leadership with a balance of masculine traits.Research limitations/implicationsThe influence of managers’ gender-related behaviors on trust and organizational attractiveness goes beyond their physical gender traits, indicating that gender plays a more crucial role than previously understood.Originality/valueBy using role congruity theory and hegemonic masculinity, this study offers a nuanced understanding of masculine and feminine gender enactment and broadens leadership theory by including the perspectives of nonhegemonic men and assertive women.

Untangling the Impact of ESG Performance on Financing and Value in the Supply Chain: A Congruence Theory Perspective

ABSTRACTThe interdependent nature of supply chains allows a firm's financing activities to be influenced by the environmental, social, and governance (ESG) performance of the firm's supply chain partners. Drawing upon congruence theory, this paper explores the impact of ESG performance congruence among different supply chain members on both firm financial constraints and market value. This study employs response surface analysis and cluster analysis to examine the data of Chinese listed firms and their supply chains from 2009 to 2022. From the dyadic perspective of customer–supplier, the results suggest that the congruence of customer and supplier ESG performance reduces customers' financial constraints while increasing suppliers' financial constraints. The reduction in customers' financial constraints enhances customers' firm value. This study further reveals different configuration patterns of ESG performance within the supply chain from the triadic perspective of customer–focal firm–supplier. Our findings enrich the empirical research on ESG performance within supply chains, offering significant insights for managers and investors in allocating supply chain resources and formulating ESG investment strategies.

How do authoritarian cultures contribute to democratic backsliding?

ABSTRACT Bangladesh was a promising case of democratic institutionalization after a successful nonviolent resistance movement in the 1990s and subsequent free-fair elections during 1991–2008. However, in the last decade, the country has been experiencing democratic backsliding and has now become a one-party-dominated authoritarian country. The article addresses this puzzle – why democracy in Bangladesh fails to consolidate even after having democratic prospects. The congruence theory contends that an alignment between the socio-political culture and the nature of the political system is necessary. A democracy slides back when political elites and citizens resort to authoritarian values and practices. This article explores the reasons for democratic backsliding, considering Bangladesh as a non-congruent case – a mismatch between the existing socio-political culture and the political system. While the existing literature argues institutional factors as the core causes of democratic backsliding, this article emphasizes cultural dimensions. Historical evidence and interview data reveal that authoritarian cultural dynamics obscure the democratic potential and cause democratic backsliding in Bangladesh. The article concludes that elitist political culture – not citizens per se – poses a fundamental threat to democracy in the country.

The effectiveness of green demarketing campaigns: the moderating role of corporate social responsibility orientation

PurposeThis research aims to investigate the effectiveness of integrated marketing communication (IMC) messages in demarketing campaigns, particularly considering the consumer’s background in corporate social responsibility orientation (CSRO).Design/methodology/approachA 2 (publicity type: green, demarketing) × 2 (ad type: green, demarketing) between-subjects experiment assessed the impact of green marketing and demarketing strategies on consumers with varying levels of CSRO. The study utilized a mix of green and demarketing publicity and advertisements to explore their effects on the perception of the brand’s honesty. Additionally, the research investigated the mediating role of “brand as honest” in shaping purchase intention and anticipated product satisfaction.FindingsResults revealed that for individuals with lower CSRO, the combination of green or demarketing strategies had no significant impact on the perception of the brand’s honesty. However, for those with higher CSRO, the brand was perceived as more honest when demarketing publicity was followed by a demarketing (vs green) advertisement. These effects on purchase intention (if one needed to buy a product of this type) and anticipated product satisfaction (which could help lower repeat and follow-up purchases) occurred through the mediating role of “brand as honest.”Originality/valueBased on the belief congruence theory, this research contributes to the existing literature by specifically focusing on the effectiveness of IMC messages in demarketing campaigns, considering consumers’ CSRO backgrounds. The study offers original insights into the interplay between demarketing strategies, brand perception and consumer behavior.

Dancing in Tandem: The Role of HR Value Congruence and Line Manager‐HR Manager Collaboration in Effective HR Implementation

ABSTRACTDespite the increasing significance of partnerships between line managers and human resource managers in implementing HR practices, prior research has overlooked the potential interplay between these two groups in terms of collaboration and line managers' subsequent HR implementation behavior. By integrating insights from value congruence theory and social context theory, we formulated a model that examines how congruence or incongruence in HR values between line managers and HR managers influences line managers' HR implementation behaviors through their collaboration. We tested our hypotheses using multi‐source and multi‐wave data from 206 stores within a large retail chain organization (206 line managers, 206 HR managers, and 1227 employees). The polynomial regression results revealed that optimal collaboration and line managers' HR implementation behaviors occur when both parties agree on HR value, while disagreement negatively impacts these aspects. Moreover, we observed significant differences between the two levels of agreement (i.e., “high–high” congruence vs. “low–low” congruence). We further found that HR managers' political skill moderates the relationship between incongruence in HR value and collaboration levels. This research advances the understanding of HR implementation by emphasizing the importance of mutual agreement between line managers and HR managers and the role of HR managers' political skill.

Local brands can’t be so gay: the effect of gay imagery explicitness on locally vs. globally positioned brands in China

Brands have been promoting gay-themed ads on Chinese social media to voice their support for gay people over the past few years. However, Chinese consumers’ acceptance of these ads remains unclear. Drawing upon the congruency theory, the present study examined how gay imagery explicitness (implicit vs. explicit) and a brand’s consumer culture positioning (local vs. global) interactively influence Chinese consumer responses. We found that implicit (vs. explicit) gay imagery elicited more favorable ad responses and increased purchase intentions and that Chinese consumers preferred gay-themed ads delivered by a brand with global (vs. local) positioning. More importantly, the superiority of implicit (vs. explicit) gay imagery was salient for a brand with local consumer culture positioning yet was absent for a brand with global consumer culture positioning. Perceived brand-message fit and ethical judgment of the ad served as serial mediators. Our findings contribute to the literature on gay-themed advertising and congruency theory.

Against the Green Schema: How Gen‐AI Negatively Impacts Green Influencer Posts

ABSTRACTThe current research examines the impact of using AI‐generated images (vs. real photographs) in social media posts of green influencers, by relying on schema congruity theory. Three experimental studies show that compared to posts using real photographs, posts that use AI‐generated images are less likely to receive favorable consumer responses. This effect arises from incongruity between gen‐AI and the green schema activated by the post, which causes a) lower perceived appropriateness of a gen‐AI image to the green context, leading to b) lower perceived authenticity of the post. In attempting to counter this negative impact of the use of AI, a reason for the use of gen‐AI is ineffective but images generated by purpose‐built AI that aligns with the green cause fully mitigates the observed issue. By identifying and explaining the specific negative impact of gen‐AI use on green influencers, this work extends research on gen‐AI use by influencers in general and research on the negative impact of gen‐AI in marketing. Findings of this research encourage green influencers and sustainable brands to use gen‐AI cautiously.