The Substance Use Risk Profile Scale (SURPS) measures traits linked to heavy drinking and alcohol-related problems (i.e., hopelessness, anxiety sensitivity, impulsivity, and sensation seeking) and is used to match people to personality-specific interventions. There is inconsistency in the SURPS' factor structure; evidence suggests confirmatory factor analysis may be too restrictive for measures capturing correlated constructs like the SURPS. We examined whether exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) is better than confirmatory factor analysis for understanding the optimal factor structure of the SURPS in emerging adults. We tested the ESEM model for invariance across sex and alcohol use groups and evaluated the validity of SURPS subscales for identifying risky drinking motives and alcohol-related problems. Emerging adults (N = 6,397, 18-25 years, M [±SD] = 19.22 [1.49]) from five Canadian universities provided survey data. Relative to an ill-fitting confirmatory factor analysis, ESEM showed excellent fit. The SURPS ESEM provided evidence supporting equal measurement across sex and alcohol use groups. Concurrent associations included hopelessness with enhancement, anxiety-coping, depression-coping, and conformity motives; anxiety sensitivity with anxiety-coping, depression-coping, conformity motives, and alcohol-related problems; impulsivity with all motives and problems; and sensation seeking with enhancement, social, depression-coping, expansion motives, and related problems. Results support the SURPS as a structurally valid measure of personality vulnerability for risky drinking motives and alcohol-related problems and provide evidence for ESEM approaches when analyzing measures containing correlated constructs. The concurrent associations between SURPS subscales and risky drinking motives and alcohol-related problems in emerging adults support their utility for identifying those who may benefit from targeted interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Motives matter: predictive value of cannabis use motives in adolescents with dual disorders - A longitudinal study.

Learning from others' dishonest behavior usually involves the motivation of self-interest and conformity, which predict different responses during the spread of dishonesty. However, these motivations are often intertwined and rarely distinguished, limiting our understanding of how dishonesty propagates. In this study, we used fMRI and a novel learning task to explore how these motivations impact participants' dishonest behaviors. We adapted the dice-rolling paradigm and included a group norm which evolved from vague to dishonest over time. Contrary to social learning theory predictions, we found that overall, participants reduced conformity when the group norm became clearer yet less informative for the rule of reward. With computational modeling, we found that self-interest was the primary driver of participants' behaviors of overreporting, while conformity motivation increased dishonesty primarily in those with higher self-interest motivation. fMRI results showed that self-interested participants had weaker learning signals in regions associated with social norm inference when the dishonest group norm became more predictable, which include the bilateral superior parietal lobes, posterior cingulate cortex, and precuneus and temporoparietal junctions. Conversely, participants driven by conformity motivation showed increased learning signals in regions related to norm compliance when the group norm became clearer, including the mid-cingulate cortex, superior frontal gyrus, and right anterior insular. In addition, they showed a decreased signal in the anterior medial prefrontal cortex which was implicated in self-reference process during moral evaluation. In summary, our findings showed self-interest motivated norm violation during the contagion of dishonesty, with conformity acting as a nudge, particularly in those with higher self-interest motivation.

Drinking motives are proximal predictors of alcohol use and often conceptualized as traitlike constructs. However, research shows motives are dynamic, varying day-to-day. We compared associations between event-specific motives reported at first drink versus retrospectively the next morning and alcohol consumption and consequences. Heavy-drinking college students (N = 95) completed 28 days of ecological momentary assessments. At first drink of the day, participants reported whether they were drinking to reduce depression, reduce anxiety, have fun, get high/buzzed/drunk (high), and/or not be left out (conformity). These motives, total drinks consumed, and consequences were retrospectively reported the next morning. Students were more likely to report "fun" and "high" motives retrospectively than at first drink. When assessed retrospectively, fun and high motives were associated with more drinks and "conformity" motives with fewer drinks. When reported at first drink, only the high motive was associated with consumption. Retrospective reports of fun, high, and conformity motives were associated with more positive consequences. When assessed at first drink, only fun and high motives were significant. Only high motives, reported at first drink, significantly increased likelihood of a negative consequence. Findings suggest event-level effects of motives on drinking outcomes depend on when motives are assessed. More associations between retrospective motives and outcomes suggest that drinking motives may change within an event and/or young adults reconstruct their drinking motives based on their experience. Findings have event-level assessment design implications and provide evidence that antecedent "high" motives present the greatest event-level risk for heavy drinking and negative outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

ABSTRACT Young adults comprise the group with the highest prevalence of both loneliness and alcohol use, underscoring the importance of developing a deeper insight into this population. Guided by the need to belong and the motivational model of alcohol use, this research evaluates whether students experience alcohol-related problems (e.g. hangovers, missing school or work) in response to a perceived lack of social connection. Specifically, we explore how feelings of loneliness are related to alcohol-related consequences, and whether this is mediated by coping, social, enhancement, and conformity drinking motives over 12 months in a sample of 591 heavy-drinking college students. Results from generalized linear mixed models revealed that, on average and controlling for the amount of alcohol consumed, students who were higher in loneliness reported more alcohol-related consequences (between-person effects) than those who were less lonely. This association was mediated by coping and social drinking motives, suggesting alcohol may have been used both to manage negative affect related to loneliness and to bolster interpersonal connections. Further, alcohol-related consequences were higher when students reported feeling lonelier than their typical levels (within-person effects), an association mediated by coping, social, and conformity motives. These results demonstrate how some students use alcohol as a way to internally cope with or externally manage a potentially thwarted need to belong.

This current two-year clinical study among adult patients with alcohol use disorder (AUD) examined drinking motives and their cross-sectional and longitudinal associations with alcohol consumption, severity of AUD, and other alcohol-related problems. Enhancement, coping, conformity, and social motives have been found to impact alcohol use, yet longitudinal studies on drinking motives in clinical populations are sparse. This observational study used data from a randomized controlled trial (RCT) conducted in Stockholm, Sweden, from 2017 to 2022, including 250 participants with AUD. Data from both treatment groups were included. Assessments of study outcomes were conducted at five time points: at baseline, and after 12, 26, 52, and 104 weeks. Self-report questionnaires and diagnostic interviews were used to assess drinking motives, alcohol consumption, alcohol-related problems, and mental health. Instruments used for self-reports included: The Drinking Motives Questionnaire-Revised Short Form (DMQ-R SF) and the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). The DMQ-R SF assessed enhancement, coping, conformity, and social motives. The AUDIT assessed self-perceived alcohol problems. Interviews were conducted to assess alcohol consumption using the Timeline Follow-Back method (TLFB) and AUD using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Generalized linear models were used to examine associations between drinking motives (DMQ R-SF) and alcohol-related outcomes (TLFB/AUDIT/AUD by the DSM-5). Reductions in both drinking motives (enhancement 15.6%, coping 23.6%, conformity 15.4%, and social 17.9%) and alcohol-related outcomes (drinks per week 40.5%, number of DSM-5 criteria 50.9%, and AUDIT total score 36.3%) were observed during the study period. Across outcomes, the most prevalent drinking motives was enhancement, followed by social, coping, and conformity motives. Elevated enhancement, coping and social motives were cross-sectionally associated with worse alcohol-related outcomes at different time points, whereas higher conformity motives had links to less alcohol consumption. Higher enhancement motives at baseline predicted a larger reduction in the severity of alcohol problems from baseline to the 104-week follow-up. Enhancement motives were most prevalent among people with AUD, and higher enhancement motives were associated with reductions in AUD severity over time. Motive domains likely play a role in understanding changes in the severity of AUD over time. The original RCT study was registered retrospectively at isrctn.com (14539251), registration date 04/09/2018.

Hispanic/Latine adults evince worse cannabis-related problems, yet little research has identified factors related to these health disparities. One factor that may play a role is anxiety sensitivity (AS; fear of anxiety-related symptoms). AS is associated with more cannabis-related problems, yet despite observed sex differences in the relation of other affective processes and cannabis outcomes, little attention has been paid to the role of sex in the relation of AS to cannabis outcomes. We tested whether the relations between AS and cannabis-related behaviors varied by sex among 520 (44.2% female) Hispanic/Latine adults who endorsed past month cannabis use. Among both men and women, AS was significantly related to more cannabis problems (but not frequency) and social, coping, conformity, and expansion motives. Among men, AS was also significantly correlated with enhancement motives. Sex did not moderate the associations between AS and cannabis outcomes. For men and women, the relation of AS with cannabis-related problems occurred indirectly via conformity motives, and via coping motives among men and via expansion motives among women. These data indicate that among individuals with greater AS, men and women report using cannabis for both similar (social, coping, conformity, and expansion motives) but also different (enhancement) reasons, and that motives for cannabis use may play different roles in the relation of AS to cannabis problems based on sex. Results highlight the importance of attending to potential sex differences in efforts to understand the role AS may have in risky cannabis use. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Different motives for cannabis use have been linked to varying consumption patterns and consequences, though findings remain inconsistent. This study examined how these motives relate to cannabis-related outcomes and tested whether Protective Behavioral Strategies (PBS) and sex moderate these associations, and whether the moderating role of PBS differs by sex. Participants were 462 young adults who reported past-month cannabis use (M age = 20.98; 61.3% male) and completed two surveys separated by three months. Regression analyses indicated that stronger coping motives were associated with more frequent use. Moderation analysis showed that the associations of social and expansion motives with cannabis quantity was weaker at higher PBS levels. Among males, the positive associations between expansion motives and quantity, and between conformity motives and cannabis-related consequences were weaker at higher levels of PBS. These findings highlight the moderating role of PBS and suggest enhancing PBS may benefit interventions aiming to reduce cannabis-related outcomes.

BackgroundExtensive evidence links alcohol to increased morbidity and mortality, leading to recommendations to reduce drinking, regardless of the amount consumed. We aimed to explore the motives for (not) drinking alcohol in low-to-moderate drinkers because of their relevance for prevention strategies.MethodsUsing a mixed-methods design, we first analyzed longitudinal self-report data from 540 low-to-moderate drinkers from general population in Germany who participated in a randomized controlled trial. Over a period of three years, trajectories of alcohol use were examined using latent class analysis, resulting in the identification of three distinct classes with similar patterns of change. To gain deeper insights in (non-)drinking motives, we conducted qualitative interviews with 22 individuals sampled from these classes (55% female, mean age = 36 years, SD = 13.2). Interview transcripts were analyzed using content-structuring qualitative content analysis.ResultsSocial motives dominated across all trajectory classes. Enhancement and conformity motives were also present, coping motives appeared rarely. Several participants offered fragmented, hesitant, or contradictory reasons for drinking, which illustrated their habitual and automated drinking patterns or unreflective routines. Impression management, as well as health-related beliefs, appeared as additional motivational dimensions. Situational abstinence was common, yet sustained abstinence faced barriers such as the cultural normalization of drinking, the low perceived health risks of light drinking, and the avoidance of the social costs of abstinence. Participants with the lowest consumption in our sample highlighted autonomy-related motives for abstaining, while higher-consuming groups described conformity and social adjustment more frequently.ConclusionsEven within a narrow range of low-to-moderate drinking patterns, motives, resources, and barriers differ meaningfully. These findings highlight the need for prevention strategies that acknowledge cultural norms, social contexts, and motivational heterogeneity beyond heavy drinking populations.Trial registrationThe study was preregistered on the Open Science Framework, reviewed and approved by the ethics committee of the University Medicine Greifswald (BB 034/22), and conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants provided written informed consent prior to participation, including consent for the anonymized publication of their data.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-025-26015-7.

The current investigation examines pathways linking individual risk factors, namely maladaptive emotion regulation, behavior problems, and drinking motives, with adolescents’ alcohol consumption. In a cross-sectional design, 243 adolescents attending secondary school in Germany completed questionnaires. The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire was used to assess maladaptive emotion regulation, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire for assessing internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and the Drinking Motives Questionnaire Revised for assessing the four drinking motives, namely social, enhancement, coping, and conformity motives. Adolescents also reported their daily and problematic alcohol consumption. The path analysis revealed that maladaptive emotion regulation was positively associated with both internalizing and externalizing problems, and all four drinking motives. Externalizing problems were positively associated with adolescents’ enhancement and coping motives, and their alcohol consumption. Internalizing problems were only negatively associated with enhancement motives. Only coping motives were positively associated with alcohol consumption. Moreover, maladaptive emotion regulation had an indirect effect on alcohol consumption, via externalizing problems and coping motives. The findings emphasize the interactions between the risk factors in contributing to adolescent alcohol consumption, underscoring the importance of targeting emotion regulation and coping motives in substance use prevention efforts prior and during adolescence.

Drinking more than intended is associated with alcohol consequences in the general population, and some risk factors have been identified. However, it is unclear whether these risk factors generalize to sexual and gender minority individuals (SGM) and whether unique SGM risk factors may also contribute to drinking more than intended. Research with the general population has also neglected the examination of using more cannabis than intended and the potential role of substance use motives. We aimed to address these gaps by examining contextual, motivational, and SGM-specific risk factors for using more alcohol or cannabis than intended at the daily level. We used ecological momentary assessment data from 366 sexual minority women and gender diverse individuals assigned female at birth. Social drinking was associated with drinking more than intended, consistent with prior work. Additional novel risk factors also emerged, including social, enhancement, and conformity motives. Several risk factors for drinking more than intended extended to using more cannabis than intended (i.e., social use; social, conformity, enhancement motives), while one cannabis-specific factor emerged (i.e., coping motives). Only one SGM-specific risk factor predicted drinking more than intended (i.e., drinking with SGM). Together, findings highlight several potential targets for interventions aiming to reduce consequences associated with drinking more than intended. For example, interventions may encourage SGM young adults to adjust their protective behavioral strategies so that they would be adequate if they drank more than intended.

ABSTRACT Polarization is considered one of the most serious challenges in democratic countries. While substantial evidence points to exaggerated perceptions of polarization—called false polarization—whether it can persist in the long run remains understudied. This paper develops a social learning model in which each citizen belongs to either of two political groups and holds either of two attitudes on a controversial issue. In each period, two citizens—one from each group—publicly express their opinions on the issue. Citizens havePolitical polarization is considered one of the conformity motives, but their distribution could be misperceived. We show that false polarization may arise as pluralistic ignorance even when the majority shares the same attitude across the two groups. Specifically, when citizens underestimate others' conformity motives, perceived polarization can trigger a self‐reinforcing spiral, leading both groups to appear polarized. Consequently, both groups may continue to publicly express different opinions. Finally, we discuss conditions under which the formation of echo chambers either mitigates or exacerbates false polarization.

In the era of social media, consumers purchase decisions are often influenced by external factors, leading to conformity in shopping behavior. Such conformity motivation may further shape their electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) behavior. This paper examines the mechanism through which conformity shopping behavior influences eWOM and tests the mediating effects of functional value, emotional value, and social value. The study aims to enrich eWOM theory by integrating the roles of social motivation and perceived value, while also providing practical insights for brands seeking to leverage conformity effects in social media communication. Data were collected from 200 social media users via an online survey about their most recent shopping experiences. The results indicate that conformity motivation significantly promotes eWOM behavior, primarily through the perception of functional value. Emotional value did not exhibit a mediating effect, while social value showed a potential but insignificant mediating role.

Prevalence, motivation, psychological distress, and gender differences of problematic social media use among Chinese college students.

Background: Despite guidelines recommending lower alcohol limits for individuals who flush, some still drink at unhealthy levels. This study investigates whether drinking motives are differentially associated with alcohol consumption based on self-reported flushing status among U.S. Asian young adults. Asian American youth report alcohol use at rates comparable to other high-risk groups, identifying the need to understand factors shaping these behaviors. Methods: The current analysis drew participants from a longitudinal multi-cohort study examining the emotional and behavioral health of college students. Freshmen were recruited, all aged 18 years and older, to complete a baseline survey and follow up surveys over a four-year period. The analytic sample (Mean age = 19.4; 70.5% female) included 244 students who self-identified as Asian. Participants self-reported whether they experience facial flush when consuming alcohol and rated their endorsement of various drinking motives. Negative binomial regression models tested main effects and interaction effects between flushing status (flushers, non-flushers) and drinking motives (coping, enhancement, conformity, social). Results: Facial flushing moderated enhancement, conformity, and social drinking motives, but not coping. Among flushers, enhancement and social motives were more strongly associated with greater alcohol consumption. Among non-flushers, conformity motives were stronger and associated with greater drinking, at a trend level. Overall, flushing or higher coping motives were associated with lower alcohol consumption. Peer drinking was associated with higher consumption in both flushing-status groups. Conclusions: The current study extends prior international research on drinking motives and flushing status to U.S. Asian young adults. Findings support the need for prevention strategies that address individual drinking motives and the modeling of alcohol use by peers. Reducing alcohol use among individuals who experience alcohol-induced flushing is a public health priority, given their heightened risk for alcohol-related cancers and other negative health outcomes.

Objective:Cannabis use has been increasing among the Hispanic/Latinx population in the United States (US). Little research has expressly focused on culturally relevant factors related to cannabis use processes and problems among this group. The present investigation sought to help bridge this gap and test the main and interactive effects of perceived ethnic discrimination and negative emotional reactivity to minority stress in terms of cannabis use processes, including perceived barriers for cannabis reduction, cannabis use problems, and cannabis use motives, among Hispanic/Latinx adults in the US.Method:Participants were recruited through Qualtrics Panels and included 521 adults who engaged in current (past month) cannabis use (Mage = 36.52 years, SD = 10.26; 55.1% male).Results:In adjusted models, for perceived barriers for cannabis reduction and cessation as well as cannabis use problems, both perceived ethnic discrimination and negative emotional reactivity to minority stress were independently associated with higher odds of endorsement. For cannabis use motives, negative emotional reactivity to minority stress was positively associated with enhancement, social, coping, and expansion motives, whereas perceived ethnic discrimination was a contributor to conformity motives; effects ranged from small to medium. No interactive effects emerged as statistically significant.Conclusions:The current findings suggest that among the U.S. Hispanic/Latinx population, screening and intervening upon perceived ethnic discrimination and negative emotional reactivity to minority stress may help mitigate challenges with the continued use of cannabis.

Background: Cannabis use and related problems are prevalent among Canadian emerging adults. Investigating risk factors for cannabis use and related problems, such as personality traits, is important for earlier risk mitigation in this vulnerable population. Anxiety sensitivity (AS) is associated with adverse cannabis outcomes in emerging adults, though the mechanisms driving this effect remain unclear. Theory linking AS to cannabis use and related problems through emotional (i.e., anxiety and/or depression) symptoms and negative reinforcement motivations for use (i.e., coping and conformity) required testing. Methods: N = 481 undergraduates completed online self-report measures. A chained indirect effects path analysis model was run with AS specified as the independent variable, cannabis-related problems and cannabis use frequency as correlated dependent variables, and emotional psychopathology and cannabis use motives as intermediate variables; bias-corrected bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals tested the presence/magnitude of indirect effects. Results: Consistent with hypotheses, AS was indirectly associated with both cannabis use frequency and cannabis-related problems through emotional psychopathology and, in turn, coping motives for cannabis use, with no evidence of a remaining direct pathway. Contrary to hypotheses, no indirect effects through conformity motives were observed. Conclusions: Results suggest that emerging adults higher in AS are at increased risk for more frequent and problematic cannabis use due to their increased propensity to use cannabis to cope with anxiety and/or depression, implicating both emotional symptoms and coping motives as potential targets for personality-matched cannabis use risk mitigation efforts.

Cannabis use (CU) motives among older adults (OA) could be an important indicator of broader mental health. OA ages 60+ (N = 78) reported on CU, alcohol consumption, and mood and anxiety. Coping, enhancement, social, conformity, expansion, and routine motives were assessed. Relationships among CU, alcohol consumption, and screenings for Cannabis Use Disorder (CUD), Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD), depression, and anxiety were examined. OA who screened positive for CUD were not different in CU frequency or alcohol consumption, but did endorse higher routine, social, coping, and conformity motives than OA endorsing non-harmful CU (d = 1.01 to 1.70). Participants who screened positive for depression or anxiety endorsed higher coping (d = 1.87, 2.18) and routine (d = 0.83, 0.85) motives in the absence of higher alcohol or CU. Higher routine motives were particularly associated with positive CUD screening, beyond other motives and CU frequency. Healthcare providers serving OA with CU should ask about motives to help determine if further mental health evaluation is warranted.

Previous research has shown that subjective and negative solitary experiences, such as loneliness, are associated with increased problematic social media use (PSMU). However, further research is needed to examine the role of other solitary experiences and motivations for solitary behavior in PSMU. Accordingly, the current study investigated the relationships between various solitary experiences (i.e., trait loneliness, perceived isolation, lack of relational connectedness, positive solitude, and frequency of solitary behavior), motivations for solitary behavior (i.e., autonomous and controlled), motives for social media use (i.e., enhancement, coping, conformity, and social), and core and peripheral symptoms of PSMU in young adults. Eight hundred twenty-nine young adults (65% females), aged 18 to 30years (M = 23.76, SD = 3.16), completed self-report measures assessing the variables of interest. Psychometric network analysis was performed to estimate regularized partial correlations among variables across the entire sample. Gender differences in network properties were evaluated using the network comparison test. Results showed that controlled motivations for solitary behavior and perceived isolation were indirectly linked to core symptoms of PSMU through conformity motives. Additionally, perceived isolation was also associated with core PSMU symptoms through coping motives. No significant gender differences were found in the network properties. These findings suggest that PSMU might serve as a maladaptive strategy to temporarily compensate for involuntary solitary experiences and to seek relief from perceived isolation.

BackgroundThis study examined motivational pathways between internalizing symptoms (i.e., depression, anxiety, stress) and simultaneous alcohol and cannabis use among young adults.MethodsParticipants (N = 151; 64% female, Mean age = 22.07) completed baseline questionnaires assessing internalizing symptoms and simultaneous use motives, and then reported their alcohol and cannabis use each day for 21 days. Participants repeated these procedures again 6 months and 12 months postbaseline. Daily survey responses were used to calculate the number of simultaneous use days involving heavy drinking (4 or more drinks for females; 5 or more drinks for males) and light drinking at each wave for each participant. The total number of negative consequences reported across all simultaneous use days was also calculated for each participant at each wave.ResultsMultilevel mediation analyses revealed that within‐person increases in internalizing symptoms (a latent factor consisting of depression, anxiety, and stress indicators) at a given wave were indirectly associated with (a) a greater number of heavy drinking simultaneous use days (controlling for number of cannabis‐only days and heavy drinking alcohol‐only days) and (b) greater negative consequences on simultaneous use days (controlling for negative consequences on cannabis‐only and alcohol‐only days). These within‐person associations were mediated by increases in positive (i.e., reward/enhancement) motives for simultaneous use. At the between‐person level, greater average internalizing symptoms (aggregated across waves) were indirectly associated with more light drinking simultaneous use days via coping motives, and with fewer heavy drinking simultaneous use days via conformity motives (controlling for frequency of single substance use).ConclusionsYoung adults may combine cannabis with heavy episodic drinking more frequently during periods when they experience elevations in internalizing symptoms, mediated by a desire to achieve the positive/enhancing effects of simultaneous use. Findings may inform alcohol and cannabis harm reduction interventions tailored for young adults with internalizing symptoms.