ABSTRACT Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are a promising class of active materials for soft robotic actuation, capable of generating complex 3D deformations. Existing approaches to complex‐form actuation with LCEs have largely focused on either global stimulation to produce a single preprogrammed 3D shape or local stimulation using light‐controlled or multi‐circuitry methods to achieve multiple complex forms. However, these approaches have notable limitations: single‐shape actuation restricts operational capability; light‐actuated systems are hindered by occlusion and require non‐compliant, bulky components, compromising compactness, compliance, and mobility; and embedded circuitry designs increase fabrication complexity while limiting achievable deformation to the number of embedded circuits. Here, we present an electrically controlled actuation method, termed dynamic current routing, which employs a continuous, homogeneous conductive LCE surface to generate a large number of complex 3D deformations using only a few input electrodes. The system is fully compliant, compact, scalable, generalisable, and field‐programmable. The actuator's capabilities are demonstrated through multi‐gait, multi‐directional locomotion, highlighting the potential of multi‐complex deformation for soft robotics and wearables applications.

Strain Monitoring of confined interpenetrating conductive elastomers for isolation bearings

Paper-based conductive elastomers have emerged as promising candidates for flexible and wearable electronics due to their outstanding portability, low cost, and environmental friendliness. While the synergistic interaction between rigid and flexible materials enhances sensing performance, weak interfacial bonding between dissimilar materials remains a critical challenge, threatening long-term reliability. This paper proposes a multiscale interface engineering strategy for designing rigid-flexible synergistic conductive elastomers. This approach substantially increases the interfacial hydrogen bond density and induces electrostatic locking effects, increasing the interfacial bonding energy by nearly an order of magnitude. The sensor exhibits exceptional durability (maintains electrical stability even after more than 120 000 strain cycles). The sensitivity correlation coefficient remains around 0.999 before and after cycling, achieving an ultralow detection limit of 4 μm. Furthermore, the sensor can precisely detect various subtle mechanical signals and shows potential applications in monitoring breathing patterns and object sorting systems.

Confined-interphase bridging-constraint synergy regulating filler motion and chain dynamics in conductive elastomer composites.

Objective. To evaluate the influence of head morphology on the performance of a wearable setup that incorporates the constraints of an eyewear-electroencephalography (EEG) device suitable for consumer-level applications. Specifically, the study aimed to characterize the electrode-skin impedance of two dry-electrode types mounted on eyeglass frames, assess the system's ability to capture alpha-rhythm modulation during eyes-open and eyes-closed (EOEC) states in the temporal region, and its capability to detect auditory event-related potentials (P300).Approach. A prototype was built by embedding four EEG electrodes, two gold-plated retractile pins (GPR) and two conductive elastomer (CoE), into a commercial eyeglass frame, with reference and bias on the nose pads. Signals were acquired using an OpenBCI Cyton board (ADS1299 analog front end, sampling at 256 Hz). Twenty young healthy adults underwent three experimental protocols, namely electrode-skin contact assessment, EOEC tasks (two cycles of 2 min each) to examine alpha-band (8-12 Hz) power changes and compute an alpha-to-broadband power ratio, and an auditory oddball paradigm (80% standard, 20% odd stimuli, 50 odd trials) to elicit and analyze P300 components.Main results. GPR electrodes exhibited moderately higher median impedance but slightly narrower confidence intervals compared to CoE electrodes. Head breadth significantly affected GPR impedance (≈11.7%decrease per mm increase), but had no significant effect on CoE impedance. Alpha-band power increased significantly during eyes-closed periods across subjects and electrode types. P300 responses (positive deflection at 300 ms) were reliably detected, with GPR electrodes yielding tighter latency distributions.Significance. These findings emphasize the importance of careful design considerations in wearable-EEG to account for inter-subject head anatomy variability and demonstrate that eyeglass-integrated EEG, can reliably capture both evoked and spontaneous neural responses.

Establishing the custom 3D printing of thermally conductive elastomer composites with flexibility and resilience by coupling dual-filler networks

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation techniques (TENS) are rapidly gaining attention for their potential in various clinical applications. One such technique is transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS), and it involves delivering nerve stimulation through the skin of the external ear. However, taVNS relies on electrodes that must conform to the complex anatomy of the ear while maintaining stable electrical performance. Conventional taVNS electrodes, typically rigid metal or adhesive pads, are uncomfortable, difficult to position, prone to drying, and costly to produce. Here, we present and evaluate two complementary fabrication approaches for soft dry electrodes suitable for taVNS, which are compliant with curved anatomical features and can be operated without gel. The first employs wet spinning of a conductive elastomer into fibers, while the second extends this method to create hollow cylindrical geometries. The resulting spongy polymer composite electrodes exhibit tunable geometry, high conductivity, mechanical resilience under strain and compression, and low material impedance confirmed through bench and human testing, even under dry conditions. These properties are critical for in-ear and broader transcutaneous stimulation applications, highlighting the potential of these fabrication methods for next-generation soft bioelectronic interfaces.

Soft ionic conductive elastomers offer unique advantages for super-capacitive pressure sensors, where the electrical double layer (EDL) effect enables high sensitivity and rapid response. However, the roles of microstructure and viscoelasticity on EDL-driven sensing remain poorly understood. This study establishes detailed correlations between elastomer microstructure, intrinsic viscoelastic properties, and sensor performance by integrating mechanical and electrical analyses. Validation of the EDL mechanism reveals how microstructural optimization and viscoelastic tuning enhance sensitivity, linear range, and stability. Height-graded architectures yield a sensor with a sensitivity of 2.70nF/kPa, a broad linear range of 0-2000kPa, and robust durability over 10000 cycles. These devices demonstrate multifunctionality in robotic electronic skin, pressure mapping, and real-time physiological monitoring such as wrist pulse detection. The findings establish key structure-property-performance relationships, providing design guidelines for next-generation, high-performance super-capacitive sensors.

Preparation of Flexible Electronic Conductive Elastomers by Constructing Energy Dissipation Mechanism through Multiple Hydrogen-Bonding Strategies

The global energy crisis and electricity shortage pose unprecedented challenges. Bio-based solar-driven ionic power generation devices with flexibility, photothermal self-healing and scalability hold great promise for sustainable electricity and alleviating energy crisis. Here, inspired by plant transpiration, a multifunctional bio-based ion conductive elastomer with solar power generation capability was designed by engineered synergy among epoxy natural rubber, cellulose nanofibrils, lithium bis(trifluoromethane) sulfonimide and eumelanin. The film exhibits an outstanding stretchability (1072%) and toughness (22.7MJm-3). The favorable synergy of low thermal conductivity, high hygroscopicity and photothermal conversion performance endowed the film with a large thermal gradient under light illumination, driving efficient water transpiration. Furthermore, the excellent interfacial compatibility between eumelanin and matrix facilitates the formation of space charge regions, which further enhances Li+ transport. The film demonstrates excellent evaporation rate (2.83kgm-2h-1), output voltage (0.47V) and conductivity (5.11 × 10-2 S m-1). Notably, the film exhibits remarkable photothermal self-healing performance even in saline environment, achieving 99.6% healing efficiency of output voltage. Therefore, the film demonstrates significant prospects for applications in photo-thermoelectric generation and solar-driven ionic power generation.

Sustainable fabrication of metal-ligand coordinated self-healing conductive organosilicon elastomers for flexible sensor applications

The growing demand for flexible electronics, on-chip cooling, and personal thermal management has driven the development of soft thermally conductive films that combine efficient heat transfer with mechanical compliance. This review summarizes recent advances in these materials, focusing on strategies to enhance thermal conductivity without sacrificing flexibility-such as rational filler selection, hierarchical microstructure design, and optimized interface engineering. We systematically analyze the properties of major elastomeric matrices and a range of functional fillers, including graphene, boron nitride, carbon nanotubes, MXene, and metallic nanowires, highlighting how surface functionalization, orientation control, and low-resistance interfacial coupling facilitate continuous phonon transport. Various fabrication approaches, from blending and coating to self-assembly and printing are evaluated in terms of their ability to balance thermal performance with mechanical compliance and environmental durability. Emerging applications in foldable heat sinks and conformal thermal interface for wearable devices are discussed, along with current challenges such as high interfacial thermal resistance and the trade-off between thermal and mechanical properties. The review concludes with perspectives on future research directions, including self-healing, ultra-flexible, and multifunctional thermal films.

Rubber components filled with carbon black are widely used in vehicles for sealing, preventing water ingress, and reducing vibration and aerodynamic noise. However, carbon particles increase the electrical conductivity of rubber. When a carbon-filled rubber part comes into contact with the metal car body, it may act as a cathode, accelerating metal corrosion via galvanic coupling. This study combined volume resistivity and zero-resistance ammeter (ZRA) measurements, resistometric corrosion monitoring, and accelerated corrosion testing to assess the effect of rubber conductivity on the corrosion degradation of painted car body panels in defects. More conductive rubber induced a higher galvanic current and accelerated paint delamination from defects. Real-time monitoring confirmed an earlier onset of corrosion and higher corrosion rates for steel coupled with conductive rubber. These findings emphasize the importance of using low-conductive rubber with resistivity from 104 Ω·m to minimize the risk of galvanic corrosion of the car body.

Conductive elastomers combining micromechanical sensitivity, lightweight adaptability, and environmental sustainability are critically needed for advanced flexible electronics requiring precise responsiveness and long-term wearability; however, the integration of these properties remains a significant challenge. Here, we present a biomass-derived conductive elastomer featuring a rationally engineered dynamic crosslinked network integrated with a tunable microporous architecture. This structural design imparts pronounced micromechanical sensitivity, an ultralow density (~ 0.25gcm-3), and superior mechanical compliance for adaptive deformation. Moreover, the unique micro-spring effect derived from the porous architecture ensures exceptional stretchability (> 500% elongation at break) and superior resilience, delivering immediate and stable electrical response under both subtle (< 1%) and large (> 200%) mechanical stimuli. Intrinsic dynamic interactions endow the elastomer with efficient room temperature self-healing and complete recyclability without compromising performance. First-principles simulations clarify the mechanisms behind micropore formation and the resulting functionality. Beyond its facile and mild fabrication process, this work establishes a scalable route toward high-performance, sustainable conductive elastomers tailored for next-generation soft electronics.

Integrating environmental stability and multi-monitoring modules into flexible sensor remains a pivotal scientific challenge. This study presents a supramolecular polyurethane (PU) engineered with fluorine-rich segments that form electrostatic crosslinks with positively charged ionic groups at polymer chain terminals and establish fluorine-dipole interactions with blended ionic liquid (IL) to stabilize ion transport pathways. The resulting ionically conductive elastomer combines shape memory capacity, self-healing property, and cryogenic tolerance, retaining robust mechanical strength (~32.31 MPa), toughness (~107.05 MJ m⁻3) and substantial ionic conductivity even at −40 °C. Notably, it exhibits a high temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR = 8.05% °C⁻1) at cryogenic temperatures (−40 °C to −30 °C), making it attractive for the development of cryogenic sensing materials. Additionally, the material exhibits high-sensitivity physiological monitoring capabilities with signal fidelity, serving as ionic skins for accurate physiological signal acquisition. Such multifunctional adaptability positions it as an ideal candidate for next-generation flexible electronics requiring reliable performance in extreme environments.

Flexible strain sensors are essential for applicationsin surgicalrobots, wearable electronics, and soft electronic skin. However, itremains challenging to realize materials that combine both high sensitivityand large stretchability. The gauge factor (GF),which quantifies resistance changes under strain, is often low inhighly stretchable polymers, because their conductive pathways remainintact during deformation. Here, we present conductive elastomer compositesthat integrate movable cross-links with carbon-based conductive fillersto overcome this trade-off. Among the four designed systems, γ-cyclodextrin–containingP1–CD⊃P2/KB achieved the bestbalance between mechanical and electrical performance. Systematicoptimization of molecular weight, γ-cyclodextrin content, andKetjenblack loading yielded an optimal composition, P1–CD⊃P2/KB (86k, 0.62, 10), which exhibited an ultrahigh GF of 1500 ± 100 together with a fracture strain of300%. This conductive elastomer composite also demonstrated excellentdurability and recyclability, maintaining stable performance over500 stretch–release cycles and enabling precise motion sensingin a robotic hand. These findings highlight the potential of movablecross-linked elastomer composites as next-generation strain sensorsfor wearable devices and humanoid robotics.

Highly conductive silicone rubber composites enabled by constructing dual-carbon black networks

Strain- and temperature-insensitive highly conductive elastomers based on solid–liquid bicontinuous networks

Cutting-Edge triboelectric nanogenerators: electrically conductive rubber reinforced with nano barium titanate

Abstract Existing tactile sensors typically treat contact localization and material recognition as separate challenges, limiting a robot’s adaptability in complex environments. In nature, weakly electric fish offer a compelling solution through active electrolocation, an evolved electrosensory system that enables them to both localize and identify objects by sensing perturbations in a self-generated electric field. While this strategy is well-documented in liquids, its application in solid-state tactile sensing has remained a challenge. Inspired by this mechanism, we propose a bio-inspired tactile sensor that replicates the electric fish’s discharge and reception functions using paired emitting electrodes and an array of receiving electrodes embedded in conductive rubber. This design enables contact point positioning and material resolution functions to be achieved on a unified sensor through the principle of shared electric fields. Using a voltage-pattern-based algorithm and a multilayer neural network, we achieved an average localization accuracy of 84.2% (with performance improving to 89.1% under standardized pressure conditions) and a material classification accuracy of 88.3% across five distinct materials. Our analysis also confirms the sensor’s robust performance across a range of excitation amplitudes and frequencies. This work demonstrates the feasibility of translating electrolocation principles from aquatic biology into solid-state tactile sensing systems. The resulting compact and versatile interface offers a promising solution for robotic exploration, prosthetics, and human-machine interaction.