Midbrain endocannabinoids actuate dopamine-based action selection.

This research examines the complexity of proving the causal link in cyber-threatening crimes resulting in victim death, with a specific focus on debt collection practices by Fintech Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Lending providers. The central issue in this discourse is the difficulty of legally linking psychological pressure exerted through digital media to physical outcomes such as death (often in the form of suicide). The research method employed is normative legal research with statutory and conceptual approaches. The results indicate that the construction of causality in conventional criminal law needs to be reassessed through the theory of adequacy to address the realities of cybercrime. Aggressive collection practices that violate legal norms often serve as a conditio sine qua non for the loss of the victim's life. This article concludes that there is an urgent need for policymakers to clarify the criteria for corporate and personal criminal liability within the fintech ecosystem to counter the fatal impacts of cyber-harassment.

This study examines the professional liability of notaries for drafting Sale and Purchase Binding Agreements (PPJB) in Indonesia, which serve as preliminary contracts when a Sale and Purchase Deed (AJB) cannot yet be executed, but often give rise to legal disputes. Such disputes commonly stem from negligence in verifying the object's legality, weak application of the precautionary principle, and partiality toward one party. Using normative legal research, this study analyses primary, secondary, and tertiary legal materials using descriptive and analytical methods, drawing on statutory, conceptual, and case approaches. The findings show that notaries' professional liability in PPJB transactions rests on five core elements: compliance with positive law, application of the precautionary principle, neutrality, protection of the parties' interests, and observance of professional ethics. Establishing a causal link between notarial acts or omissions and parties' losses requires an integrated evidentiary approach that combines factual and juridical causation, particularly the doctrines of conditio sine qua non and adequate cause. Sanctions must be imposed proportionately, taking into account the degree of fault, the nature of the violation, and its impact, ranging from administrative and ethical sanctions to civil and criminal liability. The novelty of this research lies in formulating an integrative and systematic framework that connects notarial professional standards, causation doctrines, and proportional sanctions within PPJB disputes. This framework clarifies notarial accountability and strengthens preventive legal practice nationwide.

Abstract In this essay, I subject Frege’s line of argument in the opening passage of ‘Über Sinn und Bedeutung’ to critical scrutiny, reveal its weaknesses and show what someone might nonetheless learn from it if pondering over the nature of identity and the cognitive value of identity statements. I argue that (a) Frege’s epistemological argument against the metalinguistic view of identity is inconclusive, (b) he fails to argue for the plausibility and strength of the objectual view of identity, (c) any acknowledgement by Frege that, in general, the cognitive value of true statements of the form “ $$a = b$$ a = b ” is not negatively affected by the arbitrariness of the name-object relation would have amounted to a concession that the metalinguistic view of identity statements is epistemologically on a par with the objectual view, i.e. that both views allow a plausible explanation of the fact that such statements, unlike statements of the form “ $$a = a$$ a = a ”, often contain a piece of valuable knowledge. I argue that in his mature period after 1892, Frege was right in calling into question the “coincidence view of (ordinary) proper names” according to which the sense of a proper name coincides with the sense of a “privileged” coreferential definite description. I also comment on the sense of a concept-script proper name as well as on Frege’s transformation of a metalinguistic, but non-definitional stipulation of coreferentiality into an objectual identity in Grundgesetze I. In the penultimate section, I discuss the question of whether the objectual view of identity was a conditio sine qua non for Frege’s attempt to establish the analyticity of (true) non-trivial arithmetical equations.

State sovereignty is one of the most important institutes in the field of state and international (public) law. Often problematic, the concept of state sovereignty is a conditio sine qua non for any serious scientific discussion on the role of the state as the primary subject of international law. The aim of this paper is to try to explain the essence and most important determinants of the concept of state sovereignty in relation to the system of international law, primarily through the analysis of the thinking of Hans Kelsen as one of the most credible legal theorists and experts in the field of international law. In this paper, the author problematizes the role of external sovereignty, and especially points to the importance of the principle of sovereign equality of states as one of the key principles on which the modern system of international law is based. In this context, the author also presents and briefly analyzes the fundamental characteristics of the system of international law in the period that began with the end of World War II and the formation of the United Nations in 1945 and continues to this day, with the primary goal of recognizing the most important aspects of the protection of state sovereignty within the framework of the United Nations. As a result of the analysis of Kelsen’s thinking and other relevant facts, the author comes to the conclusion that Kelsen’s ideas greatly influenced the understanding of the concept of state sovereignty, which over time experienced a significant transformation, especially in the period after the formation of the United Nations until today. In the end, the author concludes that contemporary international relations also significantly influenced the change in the understanding of the concept of state sovereignty in the 21st century.

Passion breeds professionalism and plays an unquestionable role in climbing the ladder of professionalism and acquiring and improving professional competence

The precise number of individuals held in solitary confinement in penitentiaries worldwide remains unknown. Available figures are necessarily based on estimates, according to which the global prison population amounts to approximately eleven million persons; however, the actual number may be higher. This discrepancy may result from either the deliberate underreporting of data by the states concerned or from the absence of reliable and comprehensive statistical records, which is often attributed to the use of incompatible data-collection systems that aggregate information at different levels (local or regional) without adequate integration. Penitentiary isolation, therefore, affects millions of prisoners across the globe who are confined in total institutions, characterized by formal and informal interpersonal relations as well as distinct spheres of influence. One of the most fundamental interests of incarcerated persons is their health. It determines not only survival but also their ability to function in prison. The study undertakes a doctrinal analysis of the state’s obligations toward inmates in penitentiary facilities with regard to ensuring the protection of their health, understood as a conditio sine qua non for the effective realization of the objectives of custodial sentences. While the health protection offered in prison matches the average standard outside, it seems insufficient considering the ‘totality’ of penitentiary institutions. This means the state controls and is responsible for every part of an prisoner’s life, including health.

This article examines the legal and conceptual foundations of cooperative principles, demonstrating that cooperatives are far more than “mere enterprises.” While cooperatives engage in economic activity, their identity is defined by a distinctive normative and ethical framework embodied in the Statement on the Cooperative Identity adopted by the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) in 1995. The seven cooperative principles—voluntary and open membership, democratic member control, member economic participation, autonomy and independence, education and training, cooperation among cooperatives, and concern for community—constitute the core of the cooperative model and have been legally incorporated into Portuguese law through Article 3 of the Portuguese Cooperative Code. Tracing the historical evolution of Portuguese cooperative legislation, from the Law on Cooperative Societies of 1867 to the Decree-Law No. 454/80 and its subsequent amendments, the article highlights how the legislator progressively recognized the binding force of cooperative principles, transforming them from moral guidelines into enforceable legal norms. The theoretical analysis is complemented by the discussion of a landmark judicial decision—Judgment of the Guimarães Court of Appeal, 25 May 2016 (Case No. 860/13.5TJVNF.G1)—in which the court declared null a statutory provision imposing an excessive admission fee (€150,000), holding it contrary to the principle of voluntary and open membership. This case illustrates the jurisprudential affirmation of the binding nature of cooperative principles, demonstrating that statutory autonomy within cooperatives is limited by their legal and ethical foundations. Ultimately, the article concludes that compliance with cooperative principles constitutes a conditio sine qua non for the lawful operation and legitimacy of cooperatives. These principles, possessing both ethical and normative force, define the cooperative’s social function, ensure its democratic governance, and safeguard its identity within the Portuguese legal system.

Causal relationships refer to cause-and-effect connections, where an event or phenomenon can serve as the cause or trigger for the occurrence of another event or phenomenon; this is one form of inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is used to draw a general conclusion from specific factual events. Regarding the application of causal relationship theories to the events in the Atambua District Court Decision Number 140/Pid.B/2016/PN.ATB, there are several differences in determining the causal factors of an outcome, namely the victim's death. Generally, the factor considered as the cause by causal relationship theories is the sixth factor. Exceptions include the conditio sine qua non theory, which regards all factors as causes, and the subjective adequacy theory, which also takes the second factor into account.

BackgroundAlthough withdrawal from analgesics with or without detoxification strategy represented a mainstay in medication overuse headache (MOH) management, recent evidence supports that it is no longer beneficial when CGRP-targeting monoclonal antibodies (CGRP-mAbs) are employed. However, MOH could be stratified into simple and complex MOH phenotypes according to different clinical parameters (i.e., amounts and class of analgesics, psychiatric comorbidities, history of relapse after withdrawal, symptoms of central sensitization, and maladaptive anticipatory response to pain experience). Herein, we explored the effectiveness of CGRP-mAbs plus detoxification strategy compared to CGRP- mAbs preventive treatment alone in patients with either simple or complex MOH phenotypes.MethodsThis is a six-month observational study including chronic migraine patients with MOH treated with subcutaneous CGRP-mAbs. Patients were stratified based on both MOH complexity and detoxification strategy to evaluate differences in the changes of monthly headache days, pain intensity and duration, and monthly days with acute medication intake after the first, third and sixth month of preventive treatment with CGRP-mAbs.ResultsTwo hundred patients with migraine and MOH were recruited. A significant reduction of headache attacks frequency, intensity, duration and monthly days with acute medication intake has been observed both in patients sub-classified as complex MOH (58.5%) and in those with simple MOH (41.5%) after the first, third and sixth month of preventive treatment with CGRP-mAbs (p < 0.001). Furthermore, stratifying patients based on the MOH complexity and detoxification strategy, no differences were found in the reduction of monthly headache days as well as in other parameters of disease severity (p > 0.05).ConclusionOur findings might suggest a change in the mind-set of clinicians, still considering the withdrawal with or without detoxification strategy as a "conditio sine qua non" in patients with MOH, towards a novel approach where the reduction of analgesics intake represents the natural consequence of CGRP-mAbs effectiveness.

The topic of water has gained tremendously in significance and even urgency today because of global warming and the ever-shrinking availability of good drinking water for a constantly growing world population. One important approach to changing our attitude toward this precious resource without which there cannot be life proves to be a careful and meaningful close reading of literary texts where the protagonist/s pay explicit respect to water and identify it as what it really is, a gift from God or any other divine being/creator. Recent studies have already identified the great symbolic significance of rivers, and even seas, for human society because they interact intimately with human beings, providing resources, constituting dangers and barriers, and symbolizing human life through the natural entity. The present article highlights an early medieval verse narrative, Hrotsvit of Gandersheim’s religious legend narrative, “Gongolf,” where the protagonist recognizes from early on the spiritual function of good clear water, which foreshadows his turning into a saint. Other literary texts from that early period also contributed to the global discourse on water as the conditio sine qua non for human existence, though Hrotsvit appears to be the most sophisticated and eloquent poet to create this literary paean on water. A useful term for this narrative phenomenon could be ‘aquapoetics.’

This study aimed at resolving the vexing question: Which values do participants cherish and bring into a participatory action research project? To resolve this question, diverse stakeholders comprising heads of departmental, principals, deputy principals, SGB members, and a community development worker were mobilised to participate in this study. Using participatory action research, the principles of the critical emancipatory paradigm were operationalised. Monthly meetings were held where data was generated through the Free Attitude Interview. Discussions were tape-recorded for later analysis using critical discourse analysis to make sense of the meaning-construction processes of the participants. The study contributes to scientific knowledge by revealing the values that participants brought into a PAR study, namely, intellectual humility, transparency, democracy, inclusion and beneficence. The study concludes that these values are a conditio sine qua non for a PAR study and that in their absence a study may collapse. It is recommended that these values be heeded by PAR researchers because the participants placed a high premium on them. There is a need for more theorisation and scholarisation on the appropriateness of positivistic nomenclatures such as sample/sampling and data collection in PAR. Keywords: Values, Participatory Action Research, Critical Emancipatory Research, Critical Discourse Analysis.

Environmental protection is one of the most important goals of a modem society. The scope and extent of human interference in the environment, a conditio sine qua non of the existence human society, is of such a nature that it jeopardises the balance of the environment and even of society itself. These threats have been recognised for a long time and various steps have been taken to reduce them. The very first measures taken addressed localised and sudden episodes of pollution. These measures were the response to environmental damage which had already occurred and whose key aspect was their posteriority. The increasing number of environmental problems led to an understanding that in order to protect the environment efficiently and effectively measures needed to be taken in a more organised way. Moreover they needed to have clearly defined goals and should be preventive in character, not just a reaction to events which had already occurred. This objective can only be fulfilled with the full co-operation of all actors involved. These actors include the State and its various agencies, polluters and other bodies which exploit the environment, public bodies and especially NGOs, international organisations and other bodies with a interest in this field. Despite the number and diversity of these actors it is the State which bears the main responsibility for environmental protection. This is the outcome of several circumstances. Firstly, the State is the traditional regulator within its territory and it is the only body having at its disposal the power to coerce others. Another consideration is the international dimension of environmental protection, since the State is the subject of international law and is responsible for the implementation of its international obligations. An additional reason why the State should have a special status is the peculiar nature of some constituent elements of the environment. Air, water, wild animals etc. do not constitute the subject matter of property rights. There exists no proprietor to take care for his property. This vacuum therefore needs to be filled by the State. The same principle applies in the case of any public goods. A very similar problem appears in cases of pollution “without” a polluter. As environmental protection is based on the principle of the polluter’s responsibility for the results of his activities a problem arises in the case of “old damages”. Due to the fact that some environmental harm is not immediately evident at the time of its being inflicted, it might well happen that there is no polluter still in existence at the time when the harm is identified. Here again it is the role of the State to take over responsibility for such harm. This is very closely connected with the high cost of environmental protection. ln many cases only the State is able to bear the enormous costs required for some types of environmental protection measures, both preventive and remedial. The extent of the State’s responsibility for environmental protection corresponds with the range of instruments applied by it to fulfil its obligations and to attain its desired goals. As stated above the approach taken to environmental protection must be highly organised and co-ordinated. All measures adopted must aim at attaining the same goals and respect some common principles. This fact has led to the creation of a (state) environmental policy that encompasses all activities being undertaken in the interest of the environment. This environmental policy has come through an evolution from sectoral policy till nowadays widely acceptable concept of integration of environmental aspects into all policies. But the sectoral approach still plays a significant role as implementation of the new concept is still in its early stage. There are basically three main categories of environmental policy instruments. The traditional and most widely spread category of instruments is the command-and-control system. This is based on the establishment of rules (restrictions and bans) for environmentally hazardous activities, their control and enforcement. Economic instruments represent an indirect means of regulation and also play a important role in environmental protection. They are used to correct malfunctions in the environmental goods market as the market by itself is not capable of reflecting all the costs connected with the use of the environment. Economic instruments were created to make environmental regulation more cost-effective as blanket direct regulation approach through command-and-control usually does not respect the differences existing among regulated subjects. To prevent constantly increasing state regulation regulated subjects have proposed instead the adoption of voluntary means of self-regulation (e.g. EMAS, ISO). Voluntary regulation is based on the assumption that the polluter knows the nature of his activities best and is able to realise the most convenient and effective and efficient measures for controlling them. As a result the outcome is likely to be both environmentally and economically advantageous. This paper deals with the first two categories of instruments which form the basis of environmental protection in the Czech Republic.

Author examines the role of precedent in the world legal cultures, common law and civil law. The article particularly deals with civil law. Although basic ideological premise of common law is the formal binding farce of precedent (principle stare decisis) and the basic ideological principle of civil law the rule that postulates precedent without binding farce (often perceived as its normative irrelevancy), in fact the real approaches of those both cultures are situated closer than one could see at first sight. The basic reason is the fact that the bindingness is not necessarily described in its strictly formal nature, but it is also possible to recognize weaker forms of binding farce; particularly the normative farce, when in spite of not being formally binding, precedent influences the judge in a normative way. In this sense, the judge can decide contrary to precedent, however she has to avoid arbitrariness. Therefore, the judge has to use the complex reasoning and justification why she did not follow the precedent. The author tries to explain rationales that lead to prima facie different approaches toward precedent in both world legal cultures. Common law is built on precedents, thus formal bindingness is conditio sine qua non of the legal system. In contrast, far prevailing way of thinking of the civil lawyer is deduction from the statute. The civil law judge theoretically attempts to find the answer she needs even in the situation when the statutes does not answer anything at all. Further, while common law supreme courts traditionally function on the principle a certiorari, i.e. the possibility to choose the cases that are going to be reviewed (their main function is, therefore, creation of new body of law, precedents), the civil law supreme courts usually function retrospectively – their primary role is the correction of the errors of the lower courts within the judicial system and their precedential (prospective) function is far more by-product of this activity. The article compares the opinions of many courts of various nations on the role of their precedents and the possibility to overrule their precedents. Author views some traditional notions and misconceptions of civil law as a rigid obstacle on the journey of the civil law countries toward the better conception of justice and judiciary. Therefore, the civil law culture has to create a new and rational conception of precedent, the conception that is not deformed by the traditional and erroneous ideology of civil law system. The conception should require the explicit overruling and distinguishing of precedent, thereby it should prohibit a silent overruling that traditionally prevails in civil law. The silent overruling is potential element of chaos within the judicial system. The decisions of the Czech Constitutional Court which view the precedent of the supreme court rationally and require persuasive justification in order to overrule precedent, are the first step towards this new conception.

The article presents the educational aspects of physical fitness exercises and the practice of various forms of active recreation. The differences between these two disciplines are also highlighted. The discussion explores the topic of „free time”, which constitutes a kind of conditio sine qua non for understanding the principles of the issue of sport and recreation. An outline of the development of physical fitness competition during the centuries is presented, emphasizing, among others, its political and religious origins in ancient times. Discussing the medieval forms of physical fitness training, attention is drawn to both the knighthood, which was at the forefront of this, and to the poorer social classes, exemplified by English archers, who were encouraged to practice with the bow by their monarchs. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the social and political importance of physical exercise increased, particularly, in Scandinavia and on the territory of German Reich, as did the connection between physical fitness and health promotion. The article also contains important indications regarding the growing importance of politics in sport and its connections with various social formations, including criminal circles. In the article, one can find a significant statement that, although sport and recreation initially developed together, in contemporary times it has become clear that both disciplines are increasingly following different paths, sport primarily towards „effectiveness”, while recreation, on the other hand, towards health-promoting activities. Also important is the assertion noted in the text of article that values such as fair play competition and respect for the dignity of others should play a greater role in both sport and recreation.

Saudi Arabia, a regional power with hegemonic ambitions, plays a crucial role in shaping the balance of power in the Middle East and is also involved in the rivalry between major extra-regional powers (USA, Russia, China, India) for influence in the region. The research problem is contained in the statement that in the mid-2020s, in order to maintain its prestige and strengthen its great power status while effectively competing for regional dominance against the Shia Islamic Republic of Iran and the Republic of Turkey, Riyadh’s authorities have rationalized their selection of foreign policy tools, shifting the focus from hard power to soft power. This shift is evident in Riyadh’s decisions such as: efforts to end the war in Yemen; attempts to de-escalate the conflict with Iran; resolving the diplomatic dispute with Qatar; restoring Syria’s membership in the Arab League; efforts to improve relations with Turkey; employing sportswashing; and prioritizing blue economy initiatives. The shift resulted from the fact that Crown Prince Mohammed Bin Salman started to perceive soft power as the most effective means to stabilize the regional situation, which is a conditio sine qua non for implementing the giga-projects under Saudi Vision 2030, diversifying the Saudi economy, facilitating Riyadh’s leadership among Sunni Arab states and reducing dependence on the USA.

The three main pillars of sustainability are environment, economy, and society. Society, as a component of sustainability, represents a category that is particularly difficult to explain and analyze. This category encompasses a range of values, ideas, and concepts that are widely accepted and desired. Among these, the concepts of constitutionalism and legitimacy are key legal and political constructs that underpin social sustainability. Conversely, legitimacy is a crucial element that ensures the sustainability of constitutionalism. This paper will explore several key questions: Is legitimacy a conditio sine qua non for constitutionalism? Is legitimacy a dynamic and sustainable category? Does legitimacy embody a value that is inherently desirable and beneficial? The study will further examine whether maintaining legitimacy incurs costs and if it is necessary to invest in sustaining this dynamic category. Finally, the paper will discuss whether the idea of legitimacy, as a sustainable resource for constitutionalism, is a necessity or merely a political "ecotopia."

Pravo na suđenje pred nepristranim sudom jedno je od jamstava pravičnog postupka koje nije ustanovljeno samo u interesu okrivljenika već i u javnom interesu. Nepristran je sud conditio sine qua non legitimiteta sudskih odluka, očuvanja autoriteta suda i povjerenja javnosti u funkcioniranje pravosuđa. U okviru hrvatskoga sustava kaznenog postupka pravo na suđenje pred nepristranim sudom osigurava se odredbama Zakona o kaznenom postupku koje uređuju institut izuzeća. U nedostatku znanstvene literature u Republici Hrvatskoj koja bi se bavila obradom te teme temeljna je svrha ovoga rada dati de lege lata tumačenje odredaba koje reguliraju institut izuzeća s naglaskom na spornim pitanjima koja se pojavljuju u sudskoj praksi. Nakon uvodnog razmatranja u radu se ukratko prikazuju standardi jamstva nepristranosti razvijeni u praksi Europskog suda za ljudska prava, na koju se naslanja i praksa Ustavnog suda RH. Polazeći od diferenciranja osnova izuzeća u našem ZKP-u (ovisno o tome je li riječ o razlozima isključenja ili otklona), analiziraju se i tumače osnove isključenja sudaca ili sudaca porotnika, zatim dodatne osnove isključenja vještaka aktualizirane u hrvatskoj javnosti u predmetu Agrokor te okolnosti koje mogu dovesti do otklona sudaca. Nastavno se analizira postupak izuzeća, uključujući i ovlasti koje sudu stoje na raspolaganju u slučaju očite zlouporabe prava. Konačno se analiziraju procesne posljedice pogrešne primjene odredaba o izuzeću, koje se manifestiraju u bitnim povredama odredaba kaznenog postupka s različitim učinkom ovisno o tome je li riječ o pogrešnoj primjeni pravila koja dovode do isključenja ili otklona. Nakon poredbenog prikaza instituta izuzeća u izabranim pravnim porecima u posljednjem su dijelu rada sadržana zaključna razmatranja.

The subject of analysis in this paper is the identification and analysis of the connection between monetary disputes in which the European Central Bank (ECB) is a participant, and the consequences of negative social populism, which, in practice, can affect the correct understanding of the responsibility and position of the ECB in the concept of monetary management in the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). The first part of the paper points to the concept and nature of monetary disputes as a new category of administrative disputes in EU monetary law, as their main features and legal addressees in practice, while the further text examines the advantages and disadvantages of judicial and arbitral settlement of monetary disputes, and discusses the potential legal basis of arbitration settlement in European monetary legislation. The subject of special attention is the monetary legal analysis of ongoing disputes and lawsuits initiated against the highest European monetary institution and their echo (understanding) in the general public. Transparent determination of regulatory competence within the existing organisational structure of the ECB, according to the author, is a conditio sine qua non of avoiding the initiation of (un)necessary monetary disputes, but also managing existing ones in a manner that is legally predictable and regulated.

This study aims to explore the practice of humanism in education through a phenomenological case study at Al Firdaus Middle School (SM) Surakarta. The findings reveal that the school's humanistic approach is embodied in its thematic learning evaluations, especially for students with special needs (&lt;em&gt;anak berkebutuhan khusus&lt;/em&gt;/ABK). Key practices include the presence of special assistant teachers (GPK), implementation of individual learning programs (PPI), early and continuous student assessments, and differentiated general test (GT) formats regular, substitution, omission, and modification tailored to each student’s ability. Additional components include presentation-based assessments, full parental participation through screening processes, cooperative learning strategies, and remedial instruction rooted in repeated learning activities. Notably, students with special needs are fully integrated into regular classes, fostering inclusive education. The research argues that such practices restore education to its core/&lt;em&gt;khittah&lt;/em&gt; its true path of humanizing learners. In contrast, dehumanizing education strips education of its essence and purpose. Humanism in education understood as humanizing students is an undeniable necessity, or &lt;em&gt;conditio sine qua non&lt;/em&gt;, for meaningful learning. First, students must be subjects, not objects, of education; they must occupy a central role in shaping educational direction. Second, diversity in harmony must be upheld as a foundational educational principle. Third, educators must minimize "take for granted" assumptions based on innate characteristics, recognizing every student’s uniqueness as a divine gift. Ultimately, educational humanism is not merely a method but a moral imperative in shaping dignified, skillful, and ethically grounded individuals.