Performance Concrete Research Articles

Effects of bamboo leaf ashes on concrete compressive strength, water absorption, and chloride penetration

Bamboo leaves are an agro-waste from the bamboo industry that carries a significant environmental impact, primarily due to its phytotoxic activity. In this paper the pozzolanic potential of bamboo leaf ashes are assessed. Bamboo leaves were calcined at five different temperatures - 500, 600, 700, 900, and 1000 °C. The obtained ashes were characterized using X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, differential thermal gravimetric analysis, Modified Chapelle's method, and Pozzolanic Activity Index. The ash calcined at 600 °C, exhibiting the highest pozzolanic activity, was used in concrete production as a partial replacement for Portland cement at levels of 5 %, 10 %, and 15 %. Concrete compressive strength, water absorption, and chloride diffusivity were assessed. The results indicate that the use of BLA significantly improves the concrete performance, increasing 28-day compressive strength by up to 18 % and reducing the non-steady state chloride penetration by up to 71.2 %. Overall, the use of bamboo leaf ashes obtained at 600 °C leads to significant improvements in mechanical and durability-related properties of concrete, indicating the viability of using this agro-waste as a supplementary cementitious material.

Exploring Current Techniques for Improving the Properties of New Concrete

In modern construction, the properties of new concrete are crucial for building quality and structural performance. Recent technological advancements have led to significant progress in enhancing the properties of new concrete. This study employs theoretical and experimental methods to explore the connection among shear stress and shear strain rate under vibration, the impact of aggregate substitution on concrete performance, and the rheological properties of moist shotcrete. The findings suggest that adjusting mix proportions and using additives can significantly improve concrete's strength, durability, and workability. This research provides engineers with a theoretical foundation for optimizing concrete mixtures and construction techniques, thereby improving overall building quality and construction efficiency. The findings suggest that sustainable materials can be used without compromising structural integrity, making the construction process more environmentally friendly while maintaining high performance standards. Furthermore, this study highlights the importance of understanding concrete behavior under various conditions to develop more resilient and long-lasting structures.

Research Progress on Electrical Properties of Self-sensing Concrete

In order to effectively avoid the different degrees of impact and damage to the existing buildings and structures, it is particularly important to strengthen the health detection of such structures and facilities, which is also an important research field in the development of green building discipline. Smart concrete is both structural and functional, and has the potential of self-monitoring of concrete structures. This paper reviews the basic concepts of self-sensing concrete, including the research progress of self-sensing concrete materials, and summarizes the classification of different conductive phase materials and their conductive properties. Secondly, the basic mechanical properties and electrical properties of self-sensing concrete are discussed. The factors affecting the perceptual performance of self-sensing concrete considered by different scholars are summarized. It is concluded that few scholars have studied the mechano-electric interaction evaluation mechanism that takes the electrical parameters into account the stress, strain, crack or damage of concrete, and evaluates mechanical properties and crack propagation length through the change of electrical signals. Finally, the importance of self-sensing performance of intelligent concrete is emphasized, and the prospect of future research is put forward.

Advanced monitoring of damage behavior and 3D visualization of fiber distribution in assessing crack resistance mechanisms in steel fiber-reinforced concrete

This study presents a novel approach to understanding the reinforcing mechanisms of steel fiber-reinforced concrete, particularly its crack resistance and toughening effects. By integrating dynamic surface strain monitoring with advanced three-dimensional visualization techniques, new insights are provided into how steel fibers enhance concrete's structural performance. X-ray computed tomography (CT) technology enabled detailed 3D visualization and analysis of steel fibers embedded within the concrete matrix, facilitating an in-depth examination of their distribution patterns, orientation, and positioning. Additionally, the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) three-dimensional full-field strain measurement system was utilized to dynamically monitor the loading process during three-point bending tests on semicircular concrete specimens. The findings indicate that the uniform distribution of steel fibers significantly reduces stress concentration and effectively delays crack initiation and propagation. Steel fibers bridge cracks, mitigate local stress concentrations, and substitute for the tensile components of concrete after macro-crack formation, thereby inhibiting further crack propagation. Quantitative analysis of fiber distribution through 3D image reconstruction and coordinate extraction confirmed a strong correlation between fiber orientation and crack resistance. This study contributes to the field by offering a comprehensive analysis of key parameters such as fracture process strain monitoring, 3D visualization, and quantification of fiber distribution, advancing the understanding of crack propagation mechanisms and failure processes in fiber-reinforced concrete.

Out-of-plane performance of BFRP reinforced UHPC thin panel: experiment and numerical analysis

In this study, the out-of-plane performance of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) thin panels reinforced with basalt fiber reinforced polymer (BFRP) bars was investigated. Eight panels were tested under four-point load, with the investigating parameters including panel thickness, reinforcement ratio, and the presence of steel fibers. The failure mode, crack pattern, load vs. mid-span displacement, and reinforcement strain relationships were studied. Test results revealed that panels with a higher thickness (70 mm) exhibited 178.6% higher initial stiffness, 34.5% higher cracking loads, and 88.7% higher peak loads compared to those with a lower thickness (50 mm). The effects of a larger reinforcement ratio and the presence of steel fibers became more pronounced after concrete cracking, leading to 21.2% and 22.1% higher post-cracking stiffness, respectively. Adding steel fibers helped control the development of diagonal cracks and shifted the panel failure mode from shear to flexural failure. Based on the comparison of test results with design codes, the expressions in CAN/CSA-S806-12 were recommended for predicting the load-carrying capacity of the specimens. Furthermore, a two-dimensional finite element (FE) model was developed to reproduce the test results, which validates the adopted CDP model for UHPC and the bond-slip behaviors between UHPC and BFRP bars.

Systematic review of the use of phase change material (PCM) in concrete and the fire performance of PCM in concrete

ABSTRACT The Mechanical properties of concrete significantly deteriorate when exposed to fire, with explosive spalling posing a major threat to structural integrity. This highlights the need for effective insulation systems to protect concrete structures in fire conditions. However, current insulation solutions are typically installed externally, requiring additional labour and materials. This review explores the potential of incorporating Phase Change Materials (PCMs) directly into concrete as an embedded insulation system. As a latent heat storage material, PCM offers promising fire-resistant properties, reducing the need for external insulation while improving the fire performance of concrete. This paper presents a bibliometric analysis and a systematic review of recent publications on the use of PCMs in concrete and their fire performance applications. One thousand two hundred and four publications retrieved from Scopus© and Web of Science databases were passed through the PRISMA flowchart to obtain a database of recent literature on the study area. The current trend of research shows a shift towards inorganic PCMs in concrete. There is a significant lack of studies on using inorganic and eutectic PCM in concrete for fire applications and existing studies show inorganic PCM can be a viable solution. Commercial availability and lack of synthesised encapsulated PCM were found to be barriers to research.

Experimental study on the influence of different curing methods on the performance of concrete

Curing concrete is an effective method to ensure concrete’s mechanical and durability performance. This article experimentally investigates the impact of various curing methods (air curing, sprinkler curing, geotextile curing, and composite geotextile curing) on the compressive strength of concrete at 7, 14, and 28 days, as well as the carbonation depth and chloride ion diffusion coefficient at 28, 56, and 90 days. The effects of different curing methods on concrete performance are compared. The experimental results demonstrate that sprinkler, geotextile, and composite geotextile curing at 7 and 14 days effectively enhance concrete’s mechanical and durability performance. Compared to air curing concrete at 28 days, sprinkler, geotextile, and composite geotextile curing reduced by 17.75 %, 25.11 %, and 31.51 %, respectively, but the average absolute deviation is reducing. From 28 to 90 days, air curing concrete’s chloride ion diffusion coefficient decreases by 8.5 %. For concrete specimens under sprinkler curing, geotextile curing, and composite geotextile curing, the chloride ion diffusion coefficient decreases by 20.4 %, 8.3 %, and 6.0 %, respectively. Beyond 28 days, the durability performance of concrete under composite geotextile curing, including carbonation depth and chloride ion diffusion coefficient, tends to stabilize. The optimal curing period of 28 days is determined based on comprehensive mechanical and durability performance. Composite geotextile curing retains moisture on the concrete surface, slows evaporation, reduces watering frequency and labour costs, and promotes long-term concrete performance development. Carbonation tests and durability performance, such as chloride ion diffusion coefficient, are more sensitive to concrete curing effects. Single indicators like mechanical or durability performance cannot comprehensively evaluate concrete’s long-term performance. Concrete quality should be comprehensively evaluated by considering strength, carbonation depth, chloride ion diffusion coefficient, and other indicators.

Experimental and 3D mesoscopic numerical simulation study of kinetic projectile penetrating into concrete

Concrete is a multiphase composite material composed of mortar, aggregate, and interface transition zone (ITZ). The mesoscopic components of concrete have an important influence on its anti-penetration performance. In this study, a series of penetration experiments with large-caliber ogive-nosed projectiles penetrating concrete targets are carried out. The test results show that the damage to the concrete target consists of crater and tunnel zones and increases with increasing impact velocity. Then, a local background grid method is proposed to establish a 3D mesoscopic model of concrete, based on the arrangement characteristics of the sequence number of the finite elements. Compared with the traditional 3D mesoscopic concrete modeling method, the proposed method can effectively improve the modeling efficiency. Subsequently, numerical simulations are performed based on the 3D mesoscopic model, with the simulation and experimental results in good agreement, verifying the effectiveness of the model. Finally, the verified 3D mesoscopic model is employed to investigate the effects of shape, volume fraction, size interval, and strength of the concrete aggregates on the depth of penetration (DOP) and deflection of the projectile. The simulation results indicate that the shape of the aggregate has a negligible effect on both uniaxial compressive strength and DOP. Therefore, spherical aggregates are used to improve modeling efficiency. Increasing the volume fraction and strength of the aggregates can significantly enhance the anti-penetration performance of concrete. The influence of aggregate size interval on DOP is slight, but it has a significant impact on projectile and trajectory deflection at the same aggregate volume fraction. The uneven lateral resistance on both sides of the projectile, caused by the random distribution of aggregates, is a major factor in deflection.

Towards sustainable construction: Harnessing potential of pumice powder for eco-friendly concrete, augmented by hybrid fiber integration to elevate concrete performance

This study investigates the innovative use of industrial waste pozzolana, specifically pumice powder (PP), as a partial replacement for cement, combined with hybrid fibers in concrete. Seven formulations varying PP content from 10 % to 35 % were tested, identifying 15 % PP as optimal. PP improved porosity due to its fineness, leading to better homogeneity, a refined microstructure, and an optimum compressive strength of 28.8 MPa with reduced permeability, enhancing durability. Hybrid fibers, including steel fibers (SF) from waste tires and polypropylene fibers (PF), improved toughness, ductility, and resistance to brittle failure. Tests on hybrid fiber-reinforced concrete (HyFRC) mixes with 1 % and 2 % hybrid fibers showed up to an 18.09 % increase in compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths. Energy dissipation in compressive response improved by 544.20 %, while flexural and splitting responses increased by up to 299.65 % and 208.57 %. Durability assessments in hydrochloric (HCl) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) exposure revealed the synergy of fibers and PP enhanced resistance to chemical degradation, with high PF mixes losing as little as 0.04 % strength. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed a dense, well-bonded matrix with reduced porosity. Analytical characterizations of mixtures such as energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX) were studied. Regression models developed using Popovic’s and Mander’s models, accurately predicted HyFRC stress-strain behavior, closely aligning with experimental results. The integration of PP and hybrid fibers not only improved mechanical properties but also extended service life in harsh environments, offering a cost-effective, sustainable concrete solution.

Composite Fiber Wrapping Techniques for Enhanced Concrete Mechanics

This study systematically investigates the enhancement effects of different fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) materials on the axial compressive performance of concrete. Through experimental evaluations of single-layer, double-layer, and composite FRP reinforcement techniques, the impact of various FRP materials and their combinations on concrete’s axial compressive strength and deformation characteristics was assessed. The results indicate that single-layer CFRP reinforcement significantly improves concrete axial compressive strength and stiffness, while double-layer CFRP further optimizes stress distribution and load-bearing capacity. Among the composite FRP reinforcements, the combination with CFRP as the outer layer demonstrated superior performance in enhancing the overall structural integrity. Additionally, numerical analyses of the mechanical behavior of the reinforced structures were conducted using ABAQUS 2023HF2 finite element software, which validated the experimental findings and elucidated the mechanisms by which FRP influences the internal stress field of concrete. This research provides theoretical support and empirical data for the optimized design and practical application of FRP reinforcement technologies in engineering.

Turning waste concrete powder into high calcium alkali-activated cementitious materials and artificial aggregates

In order to handle the environmental pollution caused by waste concrete powder, recycled concrete powder (RCP) is utilized to prepare high calcium alkali-activated cementitious materials and artificial aggregates. This study first investigates the high calcium alkali-activated cementitious materials, exploring the effects of different mineral admixtures, liquid-to-solid ratios (L/S), RCP/slag, Na2SiO3 modulus, and Na2O content. The results illustrate that slag powder is the best mineral admixture and the most critical factor affecting cementitious materials. Increasing the slag dosage enhances the generation of C-(A)-S-H, improves the microstructure, and increases compressive strength, with a maximum compressive strength reaching 68.42 MPa. According to these test results, the impact of various factors on RCP aggregates is further explored. The results illustrate that the L/S and slag content are primary factors influencing particle size distribution and strength. Increasing these factors leads to larger aggregate particle sizes and higher strength. The compressive strength of the aggregates at 7d reaches 93.24–-99.5 % of that at 28d, with a maximum strength of 8.2 MPa. Additionally, slag content (10–30 %) and Na2O content significantly impact the physical properties of aggregates, improving apparent density and bulk density while reducing water absorption. To verify the applicability of RCP aggregates, they were used in concrete, and the effects of aggregate strength and replacement rate on concrete performance were explored. The results display that as aggregate strength rises, the mechanical properties of the concrete improve. When RCP aggregates are incorporated, the mechanical properties of the natural concrete decline only slightly (<16.70 %). The probability of aggregate damage increases with decreased RCP aggregate strength or increased RCP aggregate content under pressure. RCP aggregate concrete exhibits better shrinkage resistance compared to natural concrete. The process of utilizing RCP is low-energy, non-polluting, and results in high-performance products, making the large-scale effective utilization of RCP feasible.

Structural Performance of Concrete Reinforced with Crumb Rubber: A Review of Current Research

Structural Performance of Concrete Reinforced with Crumb Rubber: A Review of Current Research

Evaluation on Preparation and Performance of a Low-Carbon Alkali-Activated Recycled Concrete under Different Cementitious Material Systems.

A green, low-carbon concrete is a top way to recycle waste in construction. This study uses industrial solid waste slag powder (S95) and fly ash (FA) as binders to completely replace cement. This study used recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) instead of natural coarse aggregate (NCA). This is to prepare alkali-activated recycled concrete (AARC) with different cementitious material systems. Alkali-activated concrete (AAC) mixtures are modified for strength and performance based on the mechanical qualities and durability of AARC. Also, the time-varying effects of the environment on AARC properties are explored. The results show that with the performance enhancement of RCA, the mechanical performance of AARC is significantly improved. As RCA's quality improves, so does AARC's compressive strength. At a cementitious material content of 550 kg/m3, AARC's 28d compressive strengths using I-, II-, and III-class RCA were reduced by 2.2%, 12.7%, and 21.8%, respectively. I-class AARC has characteristics similar to natural aggregate concrete (NAC) in terms of shrinkage, resistance to chloride penetration, carbonization, and frost resistance. AARC is a new type of green building material that uses industrial solid waste to prepare alkali-activated cementitious materials. It can effectively reduce the amount of cement and alleviate energy consumption. This is conducive to the reuse of resources, environmental protection, and sustainable development.

Investigating the Effect of Steel Wire and Carbon Black from Worn Out Tyre on the Strength of Concrete

Technology in concrete is rapidly developing to improve the quality and properties of concrete. One of the many recycled materials is worn-out tyres. Currently, the use of tires is very widespread considering the use of vehicles that increase from time to time. Piles of discarded tires can cause a lot of damage to the environment. So, by using steel wire waste (SWW) as new fiber reinforcement in concrete and with the combination with carbon black (CB), it is hoped that, by doing this, not only it could improve the quality of concrete, but also preserves the environment. Therefore, the objective of this research was, to identify the properties of fresh concrete with the addition of SWW and CB, and also to investigate the physical and mechanical properties of hardened concrete, incorporating of SWW as additional fiber reinforcement and CB. For fresh concrete, workability using a slump test was conducted. Several tests were carried out on the properties of hardened concrete. Among them were compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, and water absorption. The physical appearance of the concrete has also been examined and recorded. There are four batches of concrete which consist of one control batch and three batches of concrete with various weights of SWW which are in the portion of 300 g, 600 g, and 900 g, and the weight of CB is maintained at 300 g for all batches. For workability, all concrete batches with the addition of SWW and CB show acceptable workability. For the case of the density of fresh concrete, samples containing 900 g addition of SWW have the highest density which was 2520 kg/m³, as expected. Results for water absorption show that the lowest value is contributed by the control sample which was 7.6%. For compressive and flexural strength, 300 g addition of SWW has the highest value which was 28.52 MPa for compressive strength and 7.52 MPa for flexural strength. Lastly, for splitting tensile strength, the highest value was also obtained when 300 g addition of SW was added which was 5.4 MPa. To conclude, SWW and CB can be added to concrete to obtain comparable strength of concrete. However, some modifications could be made to both recycle materials to improve concrete performance.

Axial compression stress-strain relationship of lithium slag rubber concrete

Replacing cement with lithium slag and fine aggregate with rubber in concrete solves waste disposal, reduces material consumption, boosts sustainability, and enhances concrete performance. A set of prismatic concrete specimens with varying proportions were designed and experimentally tested in order to study the compressive stress-strain behavior of lithium slag rubber concrete (LSRC). The main factors affecting the specimens were lithium slag substitution ratio (SL=0%, 10%, 20%, 30%) and rubber substitution ratio (SR=0%, 5%, 10%, 15%). The results demonstrated that the LSRC exhibited good integrity during the damage. Furthermore, the incorporation of lithium slag (LS) was found to effectively compensate for the reduction in compressive strength due to the incorporation of rubber. When 10% of the fine aggregate was replaced with rubber and 20% of the cement was substituted with lithium slag, the axial compressive strength, elastic modulus, and peak strain of the tested specimens increased by 21.57%, 6.92%, and 17.26%, respectively. Compared with ordinary concrete, LSRC has good toughness, impact resistance and durability with minimal loss of strength, and has broad application prospects in engineering fields (such as airports, highways, housing expansion joints, concrete floors and railway concrete sleepers, etc.). Based on the experimental data, simplified modified equations to predict the compressive strength, elastic modulus, peak strain and axial stress-strain constitutive model of LSRC were proposed, so as to promote the development of LSRC.

Investigation of functionalized graphene oxide incorporated superabsorbent polymers for enhanced durability, hydration, microstructure and mechanical strength of modified concrete

ABSTRACT This study focuses on enhancing cementitious materials by incorporating silanized graphene oxide (SGO) and superabsorbent polymers (SAPs), aiming to improve their mechanical and durability properties. The primary goal is to evaluate the effects of SGO/SAP composites on the hydration, absorption, shrinkage, and overall performance of concrete. The composites were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to understand their microstructure. Mechanical and durability tests revealed that adding SGO/SAP composites significantly increased the mechanical strength and water absorption capabilities of the concrete. The compressive strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength of the SGO/SAP-modified concrete were measured at 57 MPa, 4.90 MPa, and 8.25 MPa, respectively. Shrinkage tests demonstrated the composite hydrogel’s excellent water-holding capacity at 0.3 wt.% SGO/SAP, facilitating internal curing in concrete structures. FE-SEM analysis indicated a reduction in microcracks due to the presence of SGO/SAP. The improvements are attributed to the synergistic effects of SGO and SAP, which enhance water retention, dispersion, and interfacial bonding within the cementitious matrix. The microstructural studies confirmed the exceptional stability of the SGO/SAP-modified mix, emphasizing its potential as an additive to improve concrete properties. This research underscores the significant potential of SGO and SAP in advancing the performance of cement-based materials, highlighting their applicability in infrastructure development and construction for creating more durable and high-performing concrete structures.

Optimizing aggregate grading and residual mortar coefficient in low-cement concrete by using crushed coal mine waste rock as base layers for low-traffic roads

In the context of depleting natural resources and environmental challenges posed by large-scale extraction and use of natural aggregates, this study investigates the use of crushed coal mine waste rock (CCMWR) as a sustainable alternative for low-cement concrete in the base layers of low-traffic roads. The primary goal is to optimize the aggregate grading and the residual mortar coefficient (RMC) to enhance the performance and durability of low-cement concrete. Utilizing the I-optimal design methodology and curve of Fuller for particle size distribution, this research evaluates the mechanical properties, workability, and environmental impact of incorporating CCMWR in low-cement concrete. The findings demonstrate that with the appropriate optimization, CCMWR can effectively replace natural aggregates, significantly reducing the ecological footprint and providing an effective solution for sustainable road construction. This research holds substantial engineering application significance by offering an innovative approach to classify and reuse waste from the coal mining industry while addressing the urgent need for sustainable infrastructure development.

Rheological and mechanical evaluation of a novel fast curing cold asphalt concrete made with asphalt emulsion, by-products and magnetic induction

This work studies the feasibility of a new cold asphalt concrete with 5 % voids with fast curing, developed with asphalt emulsion and magnetic induction. Until now, it was impossible to produce fast curing cold asphalt concretes due to the impossibility of compacting and evaporating the water in the asphalt emulsion quickly. Therefore, the aim of this work is to solve the impossibility of compacting the cold asphalt concrete and thus reduce the long curing times. For this purpose, at laboratory level, an experimental cold asphalt concrete was designed with magnetic induction and compared with two reference hot asphalt concretes manufactured according to Spanish standards without magnetic induction (one with 50–70 grade bitumen and another with a PMB45/80–65 type polymer-modified bitumen). The research was carried out in two stages. First, the new cold asphalt concrete was rheologically characterized, the binder recovered from the asphalt concrete was analyzed according to the tests of ring and ball, penetration, dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) and multiple stress creep and recovery (MSCR). Secondly, the new cold concrete asphalt was mechanically characterized, the mechanical performance of the cold asphalt concrete was analyzed by evaluating stability and deformation, dry and wet indirect tensile strengths (ITS), wheel tracking test, stiffness modulus and resistance to raveling dry and wet conditions. Based on the rheological analysis results, the asphalt emulsion recovered from the cold asphalt concrete is extremely soft with a low softening point and a high penetration rate. On the other hand, the values of viscosity, phase angle, stiffness and non-recoverable creep compliance are between those of the bitumen 50/70 and the PMB45/80–65, but closer to bitumen 50/70. As for their mechanical performance, the novel cold asphalt concrete studied presents better resistance to water damage and particle loss, both in dry and wet conditions, but also high permanent deformations and low ITS, probably due to the fact that the residual binder of the emulsion used is softer than the others.

Eco-friendly nanocomposite particles CuO/Fe2O3 and CuFeO2 as corrosion inhibitors of reinforced steel for concrete

Abstract In the last period of scientific research, the application of nanoscale materials had a huge interest in enhancing sustainability and improving the performance of concrete. This paper discusses lots of experimental truths about nanoparticles (CuO, Fe2O3) and nanocomposite particles (CuFeO2 and CuO/Fe2O3), which are manufactured by green chemistry and their effect on concrete. Because of their advanced properties due to containing the two heavy transition metals iron and copper, these particles can It is possible to bring about a wide development in the field of building and construction, and they may finalize more than one function at the same time. The dispersion of nanoparticles (Nps) in concrete mixtures is a key strategy to achieve the tailoring process, which is used to design new materials with specific properties to perform desired functions or applications. In this paper, resistance against chemical corrosion is achieved. These nanocomposites (Ncps)can improve the microstructure, function, and strength. The SEM, physical, mechanical characterization, workability and electrochemical measurements of the concrete based on those Nps. The results discovered that those Nps are corrosion resistant, contributing to decreased failure corrosion problems, which may lead to continuing to work at the same level throughout the years of service. This communication aims to provide a deep comprehension of the role of (Ncps) admixtures in concrete composites. They provide possible methods to enhance their overall characteristics and establish the basis for a more sustainable and long-lasting future in the building field.

Exploring the Potential of Nigerian Clay-Based Pozzolans for Enhancing Concrete Performance and Sustainability: A Study on Strength, Hydration, and Durability

Exploring the Potential of Nigerian Clay-Based Pozzolans for Enhancing Concrete Performance and Sustainability: A Study on Strength, Hydration, and Durability