Priority Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Concentrations Research Articles

Diurnal and nocturnal variations of PAHs in the Lhasa atmosphere, Tibetan Plateau: Implication for local sources and the impact of atmospheric degradation processing

Due to the unique characteristics, such as intensive radiation, high altitude and low humidity, plateau climate importantly affects the airborne organic contaminants' behavior in the environment. In this study, USEPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and benzo[e]pyrene were detected in the air samples collected at two suburban sites in Lhasa city. The total concentrations of USEPA priority fifteen PAHs (except naphthalene) in the particulate phase ranged from 4.4 to 60ng/m3, while in the gas phase from 79 to 350ng/m3. Integrated results of the multiple diagnostic ratios indicated that the major potential sources of PAHs in Lhasa city were local incomplete combustion of wood and cow dung cake. Particulate and gaseous PAH levels in this study displayed two clear and different diurnal and nocturnal concentration patterns, however, no distinct diurnal and nocturnal variation was observed for the total suspended particles (TSP) concentrations. No significant correlation was found between TSP concentrations and particle-bound PAHs, meaning physicochemical processes play an important role in diurnal and nocturnal variations of PAHs in the atmosphere except emission sources in this study. Based on the diurnal and nocturnal changes of the percentage of particulate phase PAHs in total PAHs, it suggested that gas–particle partitioning driven by temperature makes a great contribution to the variations of PAHs concentrations. The most susceptible to transformation between gas and particle phase chemicals are PHE, ANT, FLA, PYR, BaA and CHR. In addition, our observation suggested that atmospheric reaction and photolytic degradation also exert an important impact on the variations of PAHs in both phases in the atmosphere of Lhasa city.

POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN DIFFERENT SOILS AND VEGETABLES FROM THE PEARL RIVER DELTA, SOUTH CHINA

Surface soil samples and vegetable samples from the Pearl River Delta, South China were collected and analyzed for 16 USEPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The total concentrations of 16 PAHs in soils ranged from 22.1 to 1256.9 ng/g. Naphthalene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene and benzo(b)fluoranthene were consistently the most prevalent individual PAHs. The concentrations of 16 PAHs in vegetables varied from 31.2 to 726.8ng/g. Naphthalene and phenanthrene were the predominant PAH. Abundance of higher molecular weight PAHs in vegetable, however, was lower than that in soil. Concentrations of PAH in paddy soil were slightly higher than those in vegetable soil. The concentration of PAH in vegetable decreased in the order leaf > melon > paddy.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in some grounded coffee brands

Potentially toxic 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in four brands of grounded coffee. Four to 13 PAHs were detected. Concentrations of total PAHs in different brands of coffee samples were in the range of 831.7-1,589.7μg/kg. Benzo[a]pyrene (2A: probable human carcinogen) was found in Nescafe Premium whereas naphthalene (2B: possible human carcinogen) was found in all the samples of coffee.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils from Urumqi, China: distribution, source contributions, and potential health risks

Concentrations of 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in 28 surface soils samples collected from Urumqi, northwest China, for examination of distributions, source contributions, and potential health effects. The results indicated that the sum of 16 PAHs concentration ranged from 331 to 15,799 μg kg(-1) (dw) in soils, with a mean of 5,018 ± 4,896 μg kg(-1) (n = 28). The sum of seven carPAHs concentration ranged from 4 to 1,879 μg kg(-1) (dw; n = 28). The highest ∑PAHs concentrations were found at roadsides and industrial sites, followed by those at parks, rural areas, and business/residential areas. Coal combustion, emission of diesel and gasoline from vehicles, and petroleum source were four sources of PAHs as determined by PMF analysis, which contributed 51.19, 19.02, 18.35, and 11.42% to the PAH sources, respectively. Excellent coefficients of correlation between the measured and predicted PAHs concentrations suggested that the PMF model was very effective to estimate sources of PAHs in soils. Incremental lifetime cancer risk values at the 95th percentile due to human exposure to surface soils PAHs in Urumqi were 2.02 × 10(-6) for children and 2.72 × 10(-5) for adults. The results suggested that the current PAHs levels in soils from Urumqi were pervasive and moderately carcinogenic to children and adults.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in river sediments from the western and southern catchments of the Bohai Sea, China: toxicity assessment and source identification

The concentration, distribution, and origin of 16 USEPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were investigated in river sediments from the western and southern catchments of the Bohai Sea, China. A toxicity assessment of 28 sediment samples collected from 15 main rivers was conducted by utilizing threshold and probable effect concentrations (TEC and PEC, respectively) derived from consensus-based sediment quality guidelines. The concentrations of total PAHs (∑PAH(16)) ranged from 0.14 to 10,757 μg/kg dry weight (mean = 1,368.6 μg/kg). The high concentrations of PAHs found in Binhai New Area of Tianjin and Binzhou City are likely the result of rapid population and heavy industry growth, resulting in elevated point and nonpoint source inputs of PAHs. Of the samples collected, samples 1 and 10 (7.1 % of the total) were categorized as toxic since some of the PAH concentrations exceeded the corresponding PECs. Twenty samples were classified as nontoxic, with both the individual PAH and the ∑PAH(16) concentrations falling below the corresponding TECs. Analyses of selected PAH isomer ratios aided in the identification of PAH origins, allowing for a discrimination between pyrogenic and petrogenic sources. Spatial variability confirmed source heterogeneity within the study area. The most significant PAH-associated contamination was found in the Beitang River and Ji Canal, which are located in Binhai New Area. The magnitude of contamination and the likelihood of an ongoing influx of PAHs support the need for a better understanding of pollution sources and methods for both control and sediment restoration.

Distribution pattern of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in particle-size fractions of coking plant soils from different depth

The concentrations of 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in four size fractions (<2, 2-20, 20-200, >200 μm) in soils at different depth from a heavily contaminated crude benzol production facility of a coking plant were determined using GC-MS. Vertically, elevated total PAHs concentrations were observed in the soils at 3.0-4.5 m (layer B) and 6.0-7.5 m (layer C), relatively lower at 1.5-3.0 m (layer A) and 10.5-12.0 m (layer D). At all sampling sites, the silt (2-20 μm) contained the highest PAHs concentration (ranged from 726 to 2,711 mg/kg). Despite the substantial change in PAHs concentrations in soils with different particle sizes and lithologies, PAHs composition was similarly dominated by 2-3 ring species (86.5-98.3 %), including acenaphthene, fluorene, and phenanthrene. For the contribution of PAHs mass in each fraction to the bulk soil, the 20-200 μm size fraction had the greatest accumulation of PAHs in loamy sand layers at 1.0-7.5 m, increasing with depth; while in deeper sand layer at 10.5-12.0 m, the >200 μm size fraction showed highest percentages and contributed 81 % of total PAHs mass. For individual PAH distribution, the 2-3 ring PAHs were highly concentrated in the small size fraction (<2 and 2-20 μm); the 4-6 ring PAHs showed the highest concentrations in the 2-20 μm size fraction, increasing with depth. The distribution of PAHs was primarily determined by the sorption on soil organic matter and the characteristics of PAHs. This research should have significant contribution to PAH migration study and remediation design for PAHs-contaminated sites.

Distribution and Risk Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Vegetables Grown in Pakistan

Distribution and risk assessment of eight priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contents have been examined in different varieties of vegetables grown in Pakistan. The results showed that the total PAH contents were higher for root vegetables like potato and carrot (~13 μg/kg) and relatively lower for turnip (10.9 μg/kg), respectively while for the fruit vegetables, all the peels were found to be more contaminated than cores. The ratio of total PAH concentrations in peels with respect to those of cores is found to be 1.45, 1.26, 1.31, 1.44, 1.40, and 1.36 for potato, turnip, carrot, eggplant, cucumber, and bitter gourd, respectively. For leafy vegetables, cabbage showed maximum PAH (11.6 μg/kg) as compared to the cores of fruit vegetables. Among individual PAH congeners, anthracene showed higher levels in all vegetables. For benzo(a)anthracene, maximum concentration (3.44 ± 2.10 μg/kg) was encountered in turnip cores. Highest benzo(e)pyrene concentration was found in potato (3.19 ± 1.67 μg/kg) followed by turnip (2.74 ± 1.22 μg/kg). Benzo(b)fluoranthene and benzo(k)fluoranthene showed relatively lower levels in all samples studied. All the concentrations of PAHs are presented on a fresh weight basis. The results of human exposure of PAH by consumption of these vegetables showed that cumulative dietary exposure of Pakistani population to PAHs from vegetables ranges from 0.25 μg/p/d to 1.16 μg/p/d.

Evaluation of surface sediment contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the “Saco do Laranjal” – (Patos Lagoon, Brazil)

This paper evaluates the concentration of Polyaromatic hydrocarbons – PAHs in the Estuarine area of the Patos Lagoon, more precisely in a local named “Saco do Laranjal” in Pelotas City (southern Brazil). The samples were collected in May 2008. The concentrations of 16 US-EPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined by gas chromatography with a mass spectrometry detector (GC/MS). The sum of PAHs concentration ranged from 7.3 to 92.8μgkg−1 in dry weight. The positive correlation (Pearson test) between the total organic material (TOM) and the total PAH concentration (0.98) suggests that TOM plays an important role in controlling the PAHs levels in the sediments. According to the observed ratios of individual PAHs, the contamination in the studied area is originated, predominantly pyrolytic sources. The values found are considered under normal levels and indicates a not impacted area.

Distribution and characterizing sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons of surface water from Jialing River

Sixteen priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface water samples were analyzed by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) to study their distribution and characterizing sources. The water samples were collected from five sites (J1-J5) in the Jialing River of Chongqing downtown area from September 2009 to August 2010. The results demonstrate that the concentration of total PAHs in three samples upstream are relatively higher than those in other two sites downstream, with average concentration of total PAHs for each site ranging from 811.5 ng/L to 1585.8 ng/L. The 2, 3 and 4-ring PAHs for sampling stations account for 13.0%, 56.6% and 28.6%, respectively, in total PAHs. There are obvious tendencies of seasonal change for PAHs concentration in surface water. The PAHs concentration in April of wet season is 1 301.6 ng/L, which is 1.3 times the lowest amount of total PAHs in August of flood season. Ratios of specific PAH compounds were used to characterize the possible pollution sources. Experimental results indicate that the PAHs in surface water samples are primarily from pyrolytic PAHs because of factories along these sites, while the direct leakage of petroleum products may be significant for two sites, Jiahua Bridge (J4) and Huanghuayuan Bridge (J5), because of the wharf boat nearby.

Levels, Sources, and Toxic Potential of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Soil of Delhi, India

ABSTRACT This study was done to determine the concentration of PAHs in urban soil of Delhi (India). Surface top soil (up to 10 cm depth) samples were collected from four different sampling sites including industrial, roadside, residential, and agricultural areas of Delhi and 16 USEPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were evaluated. Total PAH concentrations at industrial, roadside, residential, and agricultural sites were 11.46 ± 8.39, 6.96 ± 4.82, 2.12 ± 1.12, and 1.55 ± 1.07 mg/kg (dry weight), respectively, with 3–7 times greater concentrations in industrial and roadside soils than that in residential and agricultural soils. The PAH pattern was dominated by 4- and 5-ring PAHs (contributing >50% to the total PAHs) at industrial and roadside sites with greater concentration of fluoranthene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]anthracene, benzo[ghi]perylene, and pyrene, whereas, residential and agricultural sites showed a predominance of low molecular weight 2- and 3-ring PAHs (fluoranthene, acenaphthene, naphthalene, chrysene, and anthracene). Isomeric pair ratios suggested biomass combustion and fossil fuel emissions as the main sources of PAHs. The toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) showed that carcinogenic potency (benzo[a]pyrene-equivalent concentration (B[a]Peq) of PAH load in industrial and roadside soils was ∼10 and ∼6 times greater than the agricultural soil.

Health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals via dietary intake of vegetables grown in the vicinity of thermal power plants

Six different vegetables grown in the vicinity of three thermal power plants and a background site in Delhi, India were analyzed for 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 7 heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Zn, Fe and Mn). Annual mean concentrations of PAHs and all metals were found to be significantly higher (ANOVA, p<0.001) at power plant sites as compared to the background site. Higher abundances of coal tracer PAHs such as Phen, Anth, Flan, Pyr and Chry in power plant vegetables suggested possible impacts of coal combustion emissions. Higher ratios of polluted sample-to-background sample of vegetables were found especially for Cr, Cd, Ni and Zn. Spinach and radish showed greater accumulation of PAHs and metals on a mass basis at the power plant sites while vegetables belonging to the gourd family showed highest relative enrichment. Power plant samples showed 184–475% greater metal pollution index (MPI) values as compared to the background location while health risk indices (HRI) for Cd and Ni exceeded the safe limit for most vegetables. Incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) assessment showed that up to 58 excess cancer cases are likely in Delhi for lifetime ingestion exposure to PAHs at their observed concentrations.

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry in soils from Southeastern Romania

Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry was used for the determination of 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface soils from seventeen areas in Southeast Romania, including sites placed in the vicinity of Galati iron and steel plant and Lower Prut Meadow natural reserve in Galati County. The total concentration of PAHs (TPAHs) in the investigated soils ranges from 0.003mg/kg to 38.524mg/kg dry weight. According to Romanian legislation for trace organic compounds in soils of different uses, the amounts of PAHs in soils from the industrial zone exceed the normal values for the majority of individual PAHs. The lowest concentrations were found in soils sampled from the protected area of Lower Prut Meadow natural reserve and the highest near a zootechnique farm in the Prut River basin, where the alert levels exceeded for the less sensitive area in the case of TPAHs and benzo[b]fluoranthene and for the sensitive area in the case of chrysene, benz[a]anthracene, benzo[k]fluoranthene and benzo[g,h,i]perylene. The sources of PAH contaminating soils are complex, being of both pyrogenic and petrogenic origins.

Characterizing priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in particulate matter from diesel and palm oil-based biodiesel B15 combustion

A set of 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) associated with particulate matter (PM), emitted by a diesel engine fueled with petroleum diesel and a 15%-vol. palm oil methyl ester blend with diesel (B15), were determined. PM was filtered from a sample of the exhaust gas with the engine running at a steady speed and under no load. PAH were extracted from the filters using the Soxhlet technique, with dichloromethane as solvent. The extracts were then analyzed by gas chromatography using a flame ionization detector (FID). No significant difference was found between PM mass collected when fueled with diesel and B15. Ten of the 16 PAH concentrations were not reduced by adding biodiesel: Benz(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, chrysene, dibenz(a,h)anthracene, fluoranthene, fluorene, indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene, naphthalene and phenanthrene. The acenaphthene, acenaphthylene and anthracene concentrations were 45%–80% higher when using diesel, whereas those for benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene and pyrene were 30%–72% higher when using the B15 blend. Even though the 16 priority-PAH cumulative concentration increased when using the B15 blend, the total toxic equivalent (TEQ) concentration was not different for both fuels.

Sources and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons of different glaciers over the Tibetan Plateau

Twenty snow samples were collected from the Qiyi glacier in Qilian Mountains, the Yuzhufeng glacier in eastern Kunlun Mountains, the Xiaodongkemadi glacier in Tanggula Mountains, and the Gurenhekou glacier in Nyainqentanglha Range over the Tibetan Plateau. The concentration and distribution features of sixteen priority Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined by gas chromatography equipped with a mass spectrometry detector (GC-MS). The sources of these PAHs were explored as well. Our results indicated that the average concentrations of PAHs in snow were in the range of 20.45–60.57 ng/L. Maximum PAHs levels were found in the YZF glacier and minimum in the XDKMD glacier. However, no apparent regional distribution pattern of PAHs was found in the glaciers over the Tibetan Plateau. Moreover, the 2–4 ring low molecular weight PAHs predominated in snow samples and the concentrations of phenanthrene was the highest. Integrated factor analysis and isomer pair ratios suggested that PAHs of glaciers over the Tibetan Plateau were derived from low temperature combustion of coal and biomass, and partially from the exhaust gas of locomotives. Air mass back trajectory indicated that organic compounds detected in snowpit of these four glaciers, in the period of time they represented, mainly came from Central Asia and the arid area of Northwest China by westerly wind circulation.

Spatial distribution and source diagnosis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils from Chengdu Economic Region, Sichuan Province, western China

Surface soils from the Chengdu Economic Region (CER) were analyzed for sixteen United States Environment Protection Agency priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to study the spatial distribution and to identify the sources of PAHs. Relatively high concentrations (more than 1500 ngg − 1 ) of high molecular weight PAHs were found in Chengdu Plain, in the middle of CER, while high concentrations (more than 500 ng g − 1 ) of low molecular weight PAHs were detected in the surrounding mountains. The concentrations of ∑ 16-PAHs in topsoil samples from CER (12.52–75,431.47 ngg − 1 , average value was 3233.92 ngg − 1 ) were higher than that from the southern China (21.91–3077 ngg − 1 , average value was less than 500 ngg − 1 ), and they were comparable to concentrations in soils from the northern China (366–254,080 ngg − 1 , mean value was more than 3000 ngg − 1 ). The concentrations from CER were also much higher than the concentrations of some world clean regions such as Antarctic (34.9–171 ngg − 1 ), European high mountains (9–11,000 ngg − 1 , mean value was 158 ngg − 1 ) and some Europe residential (736 ngg − 1 ) and arable soils (60–145 ngg − 1 , mean value was 66 ngg − 1 ). The ratio of tracer compounds (BaA/(BaA + Chr), Flo/(Flo + Pyr), and IcdP/(IcdP + BghiP)) indicated that the high concentrations of PAHs in soils were mainly derived from fossil fuels combustion in mountain region and from the incomplete combustion of petroleum in developed plain area (such as Chengdu and Deyang). From the above distribution characteristics and ratios of tracer compounds, we inferred the reasons for the distribution pattern of PAHs in CER were the domestic heating, emissions, and the physicochemical properties of PAHs.

PCBs, PAHs and metal contamination and quality index in marine sediments of the Taranto Gulf

Surface sediments collected from 10 stations of Taranto Gulf influenced by industrial waste waters were analysed for metals (Hg, Cd, Sn, As, Cu, Pb, Ni, V, Cr, Zn, Mn, Al and Fe), priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Data were compared with the published results from other coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea and with Sediments Quality Guidelines (effect range low-effects range medium, threshold effects level-probable effects level indexes) for evaluation of probable toxic effects on marine organisms. Moreover, mean effects range medium (ERM) and mean probable effects level (PEL) quotients were used to evaluate the degree to which chemicals exceed guidelines. Results suggest an ecotoxicological risk for benthic organisms, mainly in sediments near ironed steel production plant of ILVA, where high concentrations of PAHs were found.

Distribution and source differentiation of PAHs and PCBs among size and density fractions in contaminated harbor sediment particles and their implications in toxicological assessment

Sediment samples collected from Kaohsiung Harbor (Taiwan) were analyzed for 15 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 118 individual polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners in various particle size fractions and two density fractions. The PAHs in the low density fraction were a much more sensitive and effective indicator of the PAH source than those in the sediment as a whole. Hierarchical cluster analysis of PAH analytes in the low density sediments revealed significant differences in compositional patterns between locations and among size fractions. In the sediment samples from both study sites, the low density fraction particles had up to 155 and 150 times higher concentrations of PAHs and PCBs, respectively, than those in the corresponding high density fractions. In addition, the total toxic benzo[a]pyrene and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD, dioxin) equivalents in the sediment low density fractions were much higher (up to 170 and 273 times, respectively) than the corresponding high density fractions.

Concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils of a mangrove forest affected by forest fire

Surface soils affected by forest fires from Igbanko mangrove forest in Nigeria were analyzed for 16 EPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The total PAHs concentrations in the soils ranged from 63 to 188 µg kg−1 dry weight (average: 108 µg kg−1). The three predominant PAHs in the soils were naphthalene (Na), fluoranthene (Flu), and benzo(b)fluoranthene (BbF). Compared to the control sample (19 µg kg−1), elevated PAHs concentrations were observed in the soils, an indication of some level of PAHs contamination. PAHs source diagnostic ratios of Flu/(Flu + Pyr) and Ant/(Ant + Phe) indicated that the PAHs have a pyrogenic origin which may have resulted from combustion of grass, wood, or coal. An assessment based on Canadian soil quality guidelines indicated that the studied locations do not pose any serious adverse risk on human health.

Sources and risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Baiyangdian Lake, North China

The 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in the surface sediments and water of Baiyangdian (BYD) Lake. Total concentration of the 16 PAHs (∑ 16PAHs) ranges from 229.85 to 1,750.04 μ g kg−1 dry weight for the surface sediments, and varies between 145.10 and 1,311.59 ng l−1 for the surface water. The PAHs level of BYD Lake is around the midpoint of the global PAHs concentration range. Sources of PAHs in surface sediments were identified by three levels of source identification analysis, which include composition analysis (CA), isomer ratios (IR) and principle component analysis/multiple linear regression (PCA/MLR). Three sources namely coke/coal combustion, diesel emission and vehicle emission were dominant. Their corresponding contributions were 64%, 21% and 15%, respectively. Toxic potency of carcinogenic PAHs in the sediment presents a good relationship with benzo(a)pyrene levels, which indicates benzo(a)pyrene is a good indicator for assessing the potential toxicity of carcinogenic PAHs. The results of risk assessment show that most of the PAHs may not pose unfavourable effects on the aquatic ecosystem. However, it is worthy noting that some of them may exert adverse biological effects.

High Concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Found in Water and Sediments of Car Wash and Kisat Areas of Winam Gulf, Lake Victoria-Kenya

Mean concentrations of selected USEPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments and water samples from Car Wash and Kisat areas of Winam Gulf, Lake Victoria in Kenya have been determined using GC-FID and GC-MS. Sampling was done during the rainy season in April 2006. The PAH concentrations in sediment and water ranged from 0.04 to 31.95 microg/g dry weight and 3.32 to 55.8 microg/L, respectively, depending upon the sampling location. The total concentration levels of PAHs in both the sediment and water phase in this study were found to be much higher compared with those reported from other regions worldwide, revealing significant PAH pollution of Car Wash and Kisat areas of Kisumu city bay as a consequent of anthropogenic activities as described in the text. The GC-detected PAHs were confirmed by GC-MS.