For millennia, corals have built coral-reef structures upon the remains of past generations of coral skeletons, forming the world's most diverse marine ecosystems. Yet, ocean warming and regional and local disturbances are reducing the capacity of coral reefs to grow and keep pace with sea-level rise. Understanding which environmental and climatic conditions influenced reef growth in the past, when human populations were small, may help us understand how reefs respond to contemporary environmental changes. Using coral cores dating back 11,700 calibratedyears before present (yr BP) from 291 sites across the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans, we examined the relationships between seven environmental and climatic variables and coral-reef growth using a spatial-temporal Bayesian mixed model and a deep-learning neural-network analysis. Our results show a positive relationship between the rate of change in sea level and reef growth. Reef growth responded nonlinearly to sea-surface temperature, peaking at ~25 °C, during the Holocene Thermal Maximum, between ~7,000 and ~5,500 yrs BP. During this period, atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations were ~325 parts per million (ppm) by volume. Our findings reveal that atmospheric CO2 levels currently exceeding 335 ppm, combined with sea-surface temperatures and modern marine heatwaves, are less than optimal for contemporary coral-reef growth, inhibiting their ability to keep pace with sea-level rise.

Agricultural greenhouses are usually located in the suburbs or remote areas away from towns, and generally speaking, the cost of transmission and power supply is high, and some remote areas do not even have electricity supply. However, traditional greenhouses contain many different electrical equipment and facilities, and a stable power supply is essential for the normal, economical and efficient operation of the greenhouse. Modern agricultural greenhouses also need to be equipped with complete lighting systems, temperature and humidity control systems, ventilation systems, carbon dioxide concentration controlsystems, irrigation sprinkler systems, etc., which are difficult for traditional greenhouses to achievesmoothly. Traditional greenhouses are usually covered with plastic film, which usually needs to be replaced every year, and the discarded plastic film does not meet the requirements of energy conservation and environmental protection. The problem of "thermal insulation" in greenhouses has also been plaguing greenhouse growers. From the perspective of planting cycle, traditional greenhouses are generally onlyplanted twice a year, and the economic benefits are limited.

Abstract. Coastal ecosystems play a crucial role in greenhouse gas (GHG) dynamics but are less studied than open oceans or terrestrial systems. This study measured concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) in six shallow bays of the wider Stockholm Archipelago during spring (April) and autumn (September–October) 2024 using cavity ring-down spectroscopy combined with a water equilibration system. We explored how GHG levels relate to bay physical characteristics (i.e. topographic openness, sediment properties vegetation cover) and seawater properties (temperature, salinity, dissolved-oxygen saturation, chlorophyll-a, organic carbon, and nutrient concentrations), revealing significant seasonal variation of concentrations. Surface water pCO2 ranged from 225–1372 ppm, CH4 from 3.6–580 nmol L−1, and N2O from 8–20.8 nmol L−1 with pCO2 and CH4 higher in autumn and N2O higher in spring. CH4 concentrations below 250 nmol L−1 were negatively correlated with N2O, while higher CH4 levels showed a positive correlation, suggesting differences in the dominant sedimentary microbial pathways. Most bays acted as net GHG sinks in April and sources in September, with only one bay showing net source behaviour in both seasons. One bay that is subject to substantial human impacts (e.g. dredging, high nutrient loading, reduced vegetation cover) showed CO2-equivalent CH4 emissions that surpassed CO2 uptake in this particular bay. CO2-equivalent fluxes ranged from −195.2 to 793.6 mg CO2 eq. m−2 d−1 (median: 131.5 mg CO2 eq. m−2 d−1). This study is distinctive in simultaneously measuring all three major GHGs across multiple bays in relation to diverse environmental controls, offering a uniquely integrated understanding of coastal GHG dynamics. These findings highlight the variability and complexity of coastal ecosystems and demonstrate the importance of high-resolution measurements for accurate up-scaling of fluxes from these dynamic environments.

Climate change is reshaping plant disease dynamics and pathogen distribution, creating substantial risks for agricultural sustainability and food security. Increasing temperatures, altered precipitation regimes, elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, and more frequent extreme weather events are modifying interactions among host plants, pathogens, and their surrounding environment. Higher temperatures accelerate pathogen reproduction, shorten latent periods, and reduce overwintering mortality, enabling multiple infection cycles within a single season. Geographic expansion of pathogens toward higher latitudes and elevations is becoming more evident as thermal barriers decline. Variability in rainfall intensity and humidity directly influences spore germination, infection efficiency, and dispersal processes, thereby altering epidemic timing and severity. Periods of drought and heat stress weaken host defense mechanisms, disrupt physiological balance, and enhance vulnerability to necrotrophic and opportunistic pathogens. Elevated CO₂ modifies plant morphology, canopy density, and carbon-to-nitrogen ratios, which can influence pathogen aggressiveness and disease expression. Insect vectors are responding to warming trends through extended activity periods and range expansion, increasing the transmission potential of viral and bacterial diseases. Soil-borne pathogens are affected by changes in soil temperature, moisture fluctuations, and shifts in microbial community composition, influencing soil suppressiveness and long-term plant health. Technological progress in epidemiological modeling, climate-based forecasting, and remote sensing strengthens predictive capacity for disease outbreaks, though uncertainty persists due to complex, interacting variables. Adaptive strategies such as breeding for climate-resilient cultivars, integrated disease management, biological control approaches, and climate-responsive agronomic practices are critical for reducing future risks. Enhanced monitoring networks and interdisciplinary collaboration remain essential for managing emerging plant health challenges under continuing environmental change.

Multifactor optimization is a critical consideration needed to enhance resource-use efficiency and improve profitability of indoor crop production. This study investigated potential interactive effects of far-red (FR; 700–750 nm) radiation substitution for red (R; 600–700 nm) light and varying carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentrations on growth, morphology, and leaf gas exchange of ‘Rouxai’ young red oakleaf lettuce. Experiments were conducted under a moderate total photon flux density (TPFD) of 400 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 , including 60 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 of blue light (400-500 nm), and an 18-h photoperiod across three developmental stages of young lettuce: small baby (14-day cropping cycle), standard baby (18-day cropping cycle), and teen (22-day cropping cycle) stages. Building on prior work conducted under a lower TPFD (200 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 ), this study aimed to determine how a higher TPFD would influence crop response to FR and CO 2 enrichment during early crop stages. Plants were grown under four FR substitution levels for R (0, 20, 40, or 60 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 ) combined with three CO 2 concentrations (400, 800, or 1200 µmol·mol −1 ). The FR substitution significantly increased shoot biomass accumulation across all developmental stages. Significant interaction occurred between the two environmental variables. Thus, effects of FR depended on the CO 2 concentration. Lack of leaf photosynthetic stimulation in response to FR substitution for R indicated that morphological changes triggered by FR indirectly increased biomass accumulation at higher FR substitution levels. The moderate TPFD used mitigated the tendency of FR to decrease foliar pigmentation, and subjective product quality remained acceptable at all FR levels tested. These findings affirm that partial substitution of R with FR in sole-source lighting increases yield during early stages of lettuce crop production. Strategic FR use in combination with CO 2 management and stage-specific lighting offers a promising approach to improve productivity and profitability of indoor crop production when TPFD is adequately high.

Dataset on the influence of carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration and growth temperature on biomass productivity of chlorella micro-algae in green fuel synthesis

Upon exhalation, virus-laden respiratory droplets experience rapid changes in environmental conditions that lead to chemical and physical alterations that can affect virus infectivity. By manipulating the concentration of gaseous carbon dioxide (CO2) surrounding sessile saliva droplets, we altered their chemistry and then assessed the impacts of these changes on the infectivity of influenza A virus at relative humidities of 30, 50, and 80%. For virus exposed to low CO2 (<0.005% CO2 in N2) vs high CO2 (4.3-5% CO2 in N2), differences in inactivation were small except at 80% RH, where the virus decayed less (i.e., maintained greater infectivity) in low CO2 than in high CO2. The difference exceeded 1log10 at 2 h. For comparison, virus inactivation in ambient air (0.04% CO2) varied across conditions, sometimes exceeding and sometimes falling below that observed under high- and low-CO2 atmospheres. Collectively, these results suggest that the driving factors for virus inactivation vary with RH. We measured droplet pH using gold nanoprobes in combination with surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and found that pH increased in low CO2 and decreased in high CO2 at 80% RH by ∼1 pH unit in both cases. Results were consistent with chemical equilibrium modeling, which indicated that both carbonate and phosphate buffering were important. Changes in pH were smaller or insignificant at 30 and 55% RH. At these low and medium RHs, rapid evaporation of water from the droplets and the resulting increase in viscosity may limit changes in pH. Measured changes in pH did not appear to be sufficient to drive virus inactivation under any tested condition. This finding suggests that pH likely does not impact influenza transmission by fomites.

The increased concentration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in the atmosphere is considered one of the main causes of global warming, and forests are supposed to be important CO 2 sinks. However, because of human activities, large-scale deforestation has considerably raised CO 2 levels. Reforestation and afforestation may be ways to decrease atmospheric CO 2 , but demographic, ecological and economic issues prevent this on a large scale. These genetically modified trees with increased capability of CO 2 absorption present a promising alternative in mitigating CO 2 . Conformable-fractional effects in the theoretical and numerical analysis of the plantation model are presented. Theoretical considerations on the existence, Ulam–Hyers stability, and uniqueness of solutions will be derived using the Banach fixed-point theorem. Numerical investigations into the solution dynamics of different CFOD will highlight the efficiency of hybrid operators graphically.

Green infrastructure (GI) provides essential ecosystem services for urban sustainability in the face of urbanization and climate change, including stormwater management, heat mitigation, and reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration levels. Existing studies often focus on single-dimensional ecological effects, lacking a systematic investigation of their synergies and trade-offs. This study developed a coupled framework integrating scenario design, model simulation, and multi-indicator evaluation. Fifty-six scenarios, varying by GI combinations, weather conditions, and total annual runoff control rate (RCR), were applied to a high-density industrial district in Nanjing. The results showed that: (1) GI combinations enhanced comprehensive benefits, with the combination including bioretention (BR), permeable pavement (PP), and green roof (GR) performing most effectively. This was followed by the combination of BR and PP, then by BR and GR, while the use of BR alone provided the lowest effectiveness. (2) PP was a key synergistic component, improving heat mitigation and reducing CO2 concentration levels through the beneficial effects of rainfall events. (3) Exceeding the optimal RCR threshold for some GI combinations diminished tree space and three-dimensional green volume, shifting synergies into trade-offs. (4) Three-dimensional green volume was positively correlated with reductions in Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) and CO2 concentration, confirming its core role. (5) Rainfall boosted carbon sinks, while a significant cooling enhancement required PP. This study elucidates the water–heat–carbon synergy in small-scale GI, supporting multi-objective optimization in high-density urban renewal.

Background: Multiple considerations exist for the anesthesiologists in covid-19 recovered patients with added problems arising due to rhino-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis and adverse effects of antifungal drugs. Overall morbidity and mortality are more in such patients. Managing such patients posted for surgical debridement presents a unique challenge to the anesthesiologist. Methods: A retrospective analysis of 118 patients operated for surgical debridement and histopathology confirmed mucormycosis cases were analysed from the medical record. A review of preoperative clinical and laboratory data, intraoperative anaesthesia details and postoperative outcome was done. Results: 118 confirmed mucormycosis patients were analysed. 98 patients tested covid positive, out of which 73 were hospitalized. 101 patients presented with diabetes mellitus. 53 patients were operated after 8 weeks of corona virus infection. 41 patients had increased creatinine levels. 7 patients presented with difficult intubation. Intraoperatively anesthesia concerns were tachycardia, hypertension, tachycardia combined with hypotension, arrythmias, hyperglycemia, raised end tidal carbon dioxide concentration (ETCO2), increased peak airway pressure and oozing in various patients. All patients were extubated. Postoperatively, 15 patients required oxygen, 92 were discharged and death resulted in 9 patients. Conclusion: Knowledge of disease, preoperative optimization and proper preparation of patients and postoperative icu care is must for successful management of mucormycosis patients undergoing surgical debridement.

Stabilizing soil pH is not only a production effect, but mainly an environmental effect that requires a holistic approach and action. Current liming practices in arable soils are limited solely to mitigating and potentially eliminating the negative effects of acidification. An effective strategy for controlling arable soil acidification must address not only crop-related challenges but also environmental issues, with atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations being a key factor. The effects of acidification resulting from proton imbalance in soil require a two-pronged approach. As presented and supported by available data, the first is prevention, which involves increasing soil resilience to the accumulation of protons in the soil solution. Increasing the buffering capacity of the soil against acidification (pH-BC) involves primarily increasing the resources of organic matter, introducing some environmentally neutral substances into the soil, such as gypsum, and even remineralizing highly weathered soils. The second area is the need for a systemic change in the approach to liming. The prevailing system, which can be called regenerative–cyclic, requires a transition to a soil pH stabilization system. This approach to liming should both meet production objectives and limit the spread of nitrogen into the environment. Production objectives stem from the sensitivity of crops plants, regardless of the world region, to acidification. Environmental challenges arise from increasing N efficiency, i.e., reducing the share of nitrous N in the pool of N denitrification products. Maintaining soil pH within a range that meets both these goals also increases the role of carbonates in carbon dioxide sequestration. Equally important in controlling soil acidity is the ability to determine the dose of lime fertilizer based on the exchangeable calcium balance in cation exchange complex (CEC). This is crucial for soils that not only suffer from calcium deficiency, but are also susceptible to acidification, both horizontally and vertically.

Lakes, ponds, and reservoirs (hereafter: "lakes") are important sources of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Emissions of CO2 and CH4 from lakes are regulated in part by in-lake processes, including the production and storage of gases in the lower parts of the water column (bottom waters). However, while substantial efforts have been made to improve estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from lakes, limited data on gas concentrations along depth profiles have prevented the incorporation of bottom-water processes in global emission estimates. Here, we present GHG-depths: the largest existing dataset of depth-profile CO2 and CH4 measurements worldwide, including 522 lakes across 38 countries and all seven continents. These data include contributions from 45 research teams and 56 published studies, totaling 2558 discrete sampling events. As global change continues to alter biogeochemical cycling in lakes, these data can help improve mechanistic models to better predict greenhouse gas production and emission from lakes worldwide.

We aim to assess the reliability of cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) obtained simultaneously from a novel multi-band pseudo-continuous arterial spin labeling (M2-PCASL) sequence and hypercapnic gas challenge, to examine factors influencing CBF variability, and to evaluate the impact of carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration on CVR estimates. Nine participants underwent test-retest M2-PCASL scans at 3T with hypercapnia to quantify CBF and CVR. Reliability was assessed using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) at whole brain, region of interest (ROI), and voxel levels. Linear mixed-effect models were used to investigate factors contributing to CBF variability. Independent samples t-tests were used to compare BOLD CVR and temporal contrast to noise ratio (tCNR) from different CO2 concentrations. With smoothing, the M2-PCASL sequence estimated baseline CBF and BOLD CVR with good to excellent reliability (ICC > 0.81) in the whole brain, gray matter (GM), and white matter (WM). Average ICCs across the Automated Anatomical Labeling atlas ROIs were between 0.50 ± 0.30 and 0.69 ± 0.19. CBF CVR achieved fair to moderate reliability in GM (ICCs between 0.42 and 0.55). Head motion was significantly associated with CBF temporal SNR (p ≤ 0.002). 5% and 8% CO2 yielded similar BOLD CVR estimates, but the BOLD tCNR using 5% CO2 was lower, although not statistically significant. The M2-PCASL sequence with hypercapnia reliably estimates baseline CBF and BOLD CVR at improved spatial and temporal resolutions relative to existing methods, enabling us to noninvasively and comprehensively assess cerebrovascular health.

Satellite remote sensing has revolutionized the monitoring of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations, yet its integration into studies of air–sea CO2 flux dynamics remains limited. Leveraging high-resolution observations from the Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 (OCO-2) and Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS), this study investigated the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of atmospheric column-averaged CO2 (XCO2) and sea surface partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) between 2015 and 2020. Our analysis reveals pronounced latitudinal gradients, with the Northern Hemisphere exhibiting stronger seasonal XCO2 variability (5.67 ± 0.42 ppm annual amplitude) compared to the Southern Hemisphere (1.2 ± 0.18 ppm). Notably, the XCO2 growth rate was marginally higher in the Southern Hemisphere (2.48 ppm yr−1) than the Northern Hemisphere (2.39 ppm yr−1), while coastal regions showed elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations, but slower pCO2 increases relative to the open ocean, suggesting a buffering capacity of marginal seas. Furthermore, we identified distinct seasonal phasing between land and ocean XCO2, with oceanic signals lagging terrestrial ones by approximately one month. These findings highlight the utility of satellite data in resolving fine-scale air–sea carbon flux dynamics and provide critical insights into how heterogeneous atmospheric CO2 changes propagate across marine systems.

Research into the effects of environmental stressors associated with global climate change (GCC) on cyanobacteria and microalgae is scarce, with bloom-forming planktonic cyanobacteria being the exception. This study aimed to address the issue by assessing morphological and biochemical changes in cyanobacterial and microalgal cells exposed to an increased temperature (T), ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. The strains selected were Calothrix sp. SLM0211 and Coelastrella sp. SLM0503, which were isolated from a coastal environment in the central Mediterranean island of Malta. Elevated UVR had a pronounced effect on Calothrix sp. filaments, which produced screening compounds and resorted to trichome coiling to enhance self-shading. Enhanced growth was observed in cultures of Calothrix sp. grown at an increased CO2 concentration, which produced significantly high amounts of biomass, chlorophylls and carotenoids. An increased T resulted in stunted growth and low biomass accumulation in both strains. Each strain exhibited a unique response to T and UVR stressors, which stimulated the production of exopolymeric substances (EPS) and mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) in cultures of Calothrix sp. and lipid production in Coelastrella sp. cells. Our findings indicate that the effects of stressors related to GCC on cyanobacterial and microalgal cells are strain-specific, making changes at community and ecosystem levels difficult to predict.

The design of thermal strategies applied in buildings based on the use of renewable energies can play an important role in the development of a built environment that is better adapted to the climate. This paper is focused on the application of a renewable solar energy system coupled with a Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioned (HVAC) system to promote occupants’ thermal comfort (TC) and indoor air quality (IAQ) in buildings during heating season. In the building thermal design, a building thermal dynamic model is used to calculate the temperatures of the opaque and transparent building surfaces, the temperature of the water supply ducts, the TC level and the IAQ level, among other variables. The TC conditions of the occupants were evaluated using the Predicted Mean Vote index, commonly used in the literature in similar studies. IAQ was assessed by the usual carbon dioxide concentration in environments where most of the pollution is of human origin. The numerical study was carried out in a virtual residential building consisting of two floors and seven compartments. The building is occupied at night and at midday. Two cases were studied, considering, respectively, the non-use and use of the solar HVAC system. The solar HVAC system consists of solar water collectors, installed above the roof area, and thermo-convector heat exchangers, installed inside each occupied space. The results show that the application of this solar HVAC system in a Mediterranean-type climate is able to guarantee, during occupancy, acceptable TC levels in three compartments and near acceptable TC levels in one compartment. Regarding IAQ, acceptable level can be achieved throughout the day.

Adequate ventilation is essential for maintaining indoor environmental quality in schools, where ventilation standards are often based on an indoor concentration of human-generated carbon dioxide (CO2) above ambient levels. Low-cost non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) CO2 sensors offer a practical solution for ventilation monitoring, yet variability between sensors can compromise accuracy, particularly when applications depend on the determination of precise concentration differences. This study evaluates the performance of twenty-three low-cost CO2 sensors, developing normalisation functions to improve comparability across sensors, introducing an accessible methodology for on-site sensor calibration without the need for laboratory-grade reference equipment. The sensors were co-located for three independent test periods in 2025 representing typical school internal conditions in Ireland. Pre-normalisation analysis showed strong linearity (coefficient of determination (R2) = 0.999) but notable variability, with a mean root mean square error (RMSE) of 18.3 ppm and 0.45% of measurements outside manufacturers stated accuracy. Normalisation models were trained and validated using a leave-one-period-out approach. Regression-based correction yielded the greatest improvement, reducing RMSE by 16%. When applied to the full dataset, final correction factors reduced RMSE by 27%, out-of-range measurements by 43%, and proportional bias by 31%. Corrected sensors demonstrated highly consistent performance, particularly within the CO2 ranges most relevant for classroom ventilation assessment, with an RMSE = 7.4 parts per million (ppm) at ambient concentrations and 11.9 ppm at concentrations below 1500 ppm. Field-based co-location in the deployment environment across full CO2 cycles, combined with a network-derived global reference, produced effective correction factors. Performance declined marginally above 1500 ppm and during dynamic occupancy, while overall accuracy remained strong. The study presents a practical and accessible methodology for evaluating and normalising low-cost CO2 sensors without specialised laboratory equipment, supporting reliable ventilation assessments in schools.

The UK’s social housing stock is widely recognised to be in poor condition, yet there remains a significant lack of empirical data on the indoor environments experienced by residents—many of whom are vulnerable due to financial hardship or health conditions. This study presents a longitudinal assessment of indoor environmental conditions in 23 EPC D- or E-rated social housing dwellings in Warwickshire, monitored over two consecutive winters (2021/22 and 2022/23). Temperature, relative humidity (RH), and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentrations were continuously recorded in bedrooms and living rooms, while a subset of 13 homes was additionally monitored for particulate matter (PM 2 . 5 , PM 10 ) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in living rooms. Findings reveal a marked deterioration in thermal conditions during the second winter. Average living room temperatures fell by 0.7°C (from 19.2°C to 18.5°C) and bedroom temperatures by 1.9°C (from 19.0°C to 17.1°C), likely due to reduced heating use in response to rising energy costs and poor insulation. Indoor air quality (IAQ) was similarly concerning: CO 2 concentrations exceeded the 900 ppm benchmark for over 95% of occupied hours in nearly all rooms across both seasons, with average levels rising from 1193 to 1519 ppm. Limited ventilation and increased time spent indoors, as residents sought to conserve warmth, contributed to these conditions. Elevated PM and VOC concentrations were associated with occupant characteristics (smoking and pet ownership) and household activities, providing further evidence of insufficient air exchange. These results highlight the urgent need for holistic retrofit strategies that address both energy efficiency and IAQ. Prioritising improvements to building fabric and ventilation before heating system upgrades will be essential to safeguard occupant health, comfort, and well-being. The study provides rare empirical evidence and offers insights to inform policy and retrofit design for the UK’s most vulnerable households.

Mushroom cultivation is a highly sensitive agricultural process that requires precise control of environmental parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration, and light intensity to ensure optimum yield and quality. Traditional mushroom farming practices largely depend on manual monitoring and control, which are labor-intensive, time-consuming, and prone to human error. An IoT-enabled smart mushroom cultivation system that automates environmental monitoring and control using modern sensor and communication technologies. The developed system employs microcontroller-based platforms such as NodeMCU (ESP8266/ESP32) integrated with multiple sensors to continuously monitor critical growth parameters in real time. The sensed data are processed locally and transmitted via Wi-Fi to cloud-based IoT platforms such as ThingSpeak, Blynk, or Firebase. These platforms provide intuitive mobile and web dashboards that allow farmers to remotely visualize environmental conditions and receive timely updates. Based on predefined threshold values, the system automatically controls actuators including exhaust fans, humidifiers, heaters, and lighting systems to maintain optimal growing conditions without constant human intervention. The key innovation of this system lies in transforming conventional mushroom cultivation into a smart, data-driven process. A continuous real-time sensing, automated decision-making, and remote accessibility significantly reduce labor dependency and operational costs while improving environmental stability. The system also enables rapid response to unfavorable conditions, minimizing crop losses and enhancing productivity. The expected outcomes of the project include improved yield consistency, better resource utilization, reduced manual labor, and enhanced operational efficiency. The intergartion of IoT technology with traditional mushroom farming practices, the proposed system offers a scalable, cost-effective, and sustainable solution suitable for small, medium, and commercial mushroom growers. This smart cultivation approach contributes to precision agriculture and supports the adoption of digital technologies in modern agri-based enterprises.

Abstract Gas turbine secondary air systems enable elevated turbine entry temperatures for increased cycle efficiency and work output. To prevent the ingress of hot mainstream gas into the turbine cavity, purge flow is supplied to the cavity from the upstream compressor. It subsequently exits the cavity through a rim seal into the mainstream gas-path (egress). The interaction between egress and the mainstream alters the endwall secondary flow structures that form within the rotor blade passage. Purge has a significantly lower temperature than the mainstream flow and so a non-unity purge-mainstream density ratio (DR) exists, with unknown implications on the endwall secondary flow. Phase-locked, ensemble-averaged volumetric velocimetry measurements of the flow field within the rotor blade passage were conducted using a one-stage, optically accessible, rotating turbine test facility. The effect of DR was simulated by varying the concentration of purge carbon dioxide to achieve three DR conditions: 1, 1.26, and 1.54. Pitch-wise and radial positions of the endwall secondary flow vortices were tracked using a non-local vortex detection method. A significant pitch-wise shift in the egress vortex occurred when the cavity sealing effectiveness was increased. An independent increase in either the non-dimensional sealing flow parameter (Φ0) or DR resulted in increased radial migration (h), annulus blockage ratio (ξ), and circulation (Γ) of the passage vortex. A new cavity-derived blowing ratio, Φe*, was developed. This is proportional to the classical blowing ratio when in the purge-dominated interval, and has a strong positive correlation with Δh, Δξ, and ΔΓ. Therefore, measurements in the cavity can only be related directly to the mainstream gas-path if the non-dimensional purge level is normalized with respect to DR.