Composition Of Rainwater Research Articles

Unraveling the Role of Sulfur Compounds in Acid Rain Formation: Experiments on a Wetted Glass pH Electrode

Vast quantities, on the order of megatons, of pollutants are emitted monthly to the atmosphere both by natural and anthropogenic sources. The evaluation of rainwater composition has great importance in understanding the atmospheric chemical composition, as water drops scavenge particles and soluble atmospheric pollutants. Most students are aware that SO2 is one of the pollutants related to the acidification of the atmosphere owing to its oxidation in the gas or liquid phase that produces sulfate and H+, but the situation is more complex in the presence of other common pollutants such as ammonia or formaldehyde. To give insight into the chemistry occurring in the gas and liquid phases, a demonstration is described where the pH of a “raindrop” is monitored during absorption of SO2 followed by exposure to H2O2, with or without previous contact with gaseous CH2O. The effect of the presence of alkalinizing substances such as NH3 in the atmosphere is evaluated as well. The raindrop is simulated by the wet bulb ...

Neutralization of rainwater acidity at Kanpur, India

Particulate matter (PM) levels show significant seasonal variability and this can influence the neutralization of rainwater acidity. Months were grouped in two periods: monsoon (July to October) and non-monsoon (November to June) for studying the seasonal variability in PM and rainwater composition. To clearly establish the cause effect relationship of acid rain neutralization, a two tier model was proposed involving source apportionment of particulates at two levels: (i) ambient air and (ii) rainwater particulate interaction. For modelling purpose, PM10 (n = 100), soil (n = 4) and rainwater (n = 83) samples were collected at Kanpur, India during 2000–2002. The collected samples were analysed for metals and water soluble ion composition to employ factor analysis for source identification. Knowledge of statistical correlation and chemistry fundamentals were combined to estimate the sources for acid rain neutralization. NH4 + was a dominating ion responsible for neutralizing the acidity of rainwater in monsoon period and Ca2+ was dominating in non-monsoon period. Components of secondary particles (SO42− and NO3−) showed affinity with NH4+, signifying the major role that ammonia can play if present in excess of stoichiometric requirements.

Biogeochemical effects of forest vegetation on acid precipitation-related water chemistry: A case study in southwest China

The elemental composition of rainwater, throughfall, and soil solutions of a forest ecosystem in the acid rain control region of southwest China was investigated during 2007-2008 to assess the acid buffering capacity of different forest covers. A possible seasonal distribution of wet deposition was identified. Sulfur was determined as the dominant acidification precursor in this region. The chemical composition of rainfall intercepted by the forest canopy was modified substantially; generally the ion concentrations were increased by dry deposition and foliar leaching. As an exception, the concentration of NH(4)(+) and NO(3)(-) decreased in throughfall, which was probably due to the absorption of nitrogen by the leaves. Elemental concentrations in soil solutions decreased with depth. The water conservation capacity of different forests was also evaluated. The most appropriate forest vegetation for water conservation and remediation of acid precipitation in this region was explored for the sake of ecosystem management, ecological restoration and economic development.

Pitting of zinc: Observations on atmospheric corrosion in tropical countries

A five-nation study has investigated the mechanisms and rates of the atmospheric corrosion of zinc and steel in tropical regions in Australia, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam and The Philippines. For the study, 18 exposure sites encompassing severe marine, marine, severe industrial, industrial, marine/industrial, urban and highland environments were established across the countries. At each location, zinc and steel plates were exposed for periods of three months and one year, and measurements were taken of a wide range of surface-response and climatic parameters, including gaseous SO x and NO x , airborne salinity, relative humidity (RH) and temperature, rainwater composition, surface temperature and time of wetness (TOW). Exposed plates were used to determine mass loss, the nature of corrosion products (using FTIR and SEM-EDS) and the morphologies of corrosion layers (via SEM-EDS). Regression analysis indicated that the prime factors controlling zinc corrosion rate were climate (temperature and rainfall) and surface-response (TOW), and surprisingly not pollutant levels, despite significant variation in SO x levels across the sites. SEM studies indicated the presence of pitting below the oxide layers on zinc, particularly those plates exposed at marine and other sites with relatively low SO x levels. In contrast, no pitting was observed (or pits had very low aspect ratios) in the specimens exposed at sites with high SO x levels. The possible processes leading to the observed damage patterns are discussed.

Chemical characterization of precipitation at a coastal site in Trombay, Mumbai, India

Precipitation is the best scavenger for the particulates and dissolved gaseous pollutants present in the atmosphere. The chemical composition of precipitation is dominated by a number of in-cloud and below-cloud scavenging processes. The present study is aimed at analyzing the chemical composition of rainwater in the relatively less industrialized part of Mumbai. The pH of rainwater in this region ranges from 4.8 to 6.4. The percentage contributions of ions were calculated and the major contributing ions were calcium (28%), chloride (23%), sodium (18%), sulfate (14%), magnesium (11%), ammonium (4%), potassium (1%), and nitrate (1%). The correlation coefficient is highest for Na and Cl (r(2) = 0.99), giving a clear indication of contribution from sea salt. Sulfate and nitrate ions also show a very good correlation (r(2) = 0.90), which may be due to their coemission from fossil fuel combustion. Acidification caused by these ions is neutralized by Ca, Mg, and NH(4) ions. The neutralization effect due to these ions is validated by calculating the neutralization factor (NF). The NF values are in the order Ca > Mg > NH(4). The major source contributors for the ions in precipitation are sea salt (Na, Cl, and K) and fossil fuel combustion (SO(4) and NO(3)). These assumptions are supported by the values of wet-only ratio, enrichment factor, and percent sea salt fraction.

Verification of the geographical origin of modeled air-mass trajectories by means of the isotope composition of rainwater during the SALLJEX experiment

The SALLJEX experiment was held during the summer 2002–2003. It consisted of three-dimensional observation of the atmosphere to study the structure of the low level jet along the eastern slopes of the Andes. Daily precipitation water samples were collected at two stations (Resistencia and Salta) in northern Argentina and isotope content was analyzed. The isotope data were used in conjunction with air parcel trajectories obtained from a 3-D kinematic model (3D-MTC) developed by the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Values of deuterium excess were related with air masses of continental origin, whilst low values were associated with air masses with longer oceanic trajectories. Furthermore, although data are scarce, results show that oxygen-18 and deuterium excess in rainwater are related with the occurrence of the low level jet.

Assessment of rainwater volatile organic carbon in southeastern North Carolina, USA

Extensive production of ethanol and vehicular use of this biofuel have recently been suggested as possible sources of elevated volatile organic carbon (VOC) in rain in Brazil (Campos, M.L.A.M., Nogueira, R.F.P., Dametto, P.R., Francisco, J.G., Coelho, C.H., 2007. Dissolved organic carbon in rainwater: glassware decontamination and sample preservation and volatile organic carbon. Atmos. Environ. 41, 8924–8931; Coelho, C.H., Francisco, J.G., Nogueira, R.F.P., Campos, M.L.A.M., 2008. Dissolved organic carbon in rainwater from areas heavily impacted by sugar cane burning. Atmos. Environ. 42, 7115–7121). Furthermore, these studies suggested that the global flux of rainwater dissolved organic carbon (DOC) may be underestimated since most DOC analytical methods do not measure VOC. The current study examined rain VOC in Wilmington, North Carolina USA in order to assess the importance of rain VOC in a location that does not have the unique conditions of ethanol production and usage found in Brazil. VOC was observed in one of six whole rain events analyzed in the current study. This event had an air mass back trajectory that originated over the Midwestern USA, the primary region where ethanol is produced and used as fuel. The other five storms which had no influence from the central US prior to arrival at the rain collection site had non-detectable VOC suggesting that air mass back trajectory has a dramatic impact on the VOC content of rainwater. VOC was also observed in the initial 1 mm of rain from two of these events but was not detectable in the whole event samples suggesting VOC is efficiently washed out of the atmosphere and is not rapidly resupplied in rainwater at this location. Considering the results of the previous Brazilian studies and the current study, and the likelihood of increased global production and consumption of ethanol based biofuels, it is imperative that future measurements of rainwater DOC include measurement of VOC. Monitoring changes in the VOC contribution to rain DOC will provide an assessment of the impact of increased ethanol biofuel usage on rainwater composition and allow for future refinements of global rainwater DOC flux estimates.

Back Trajectory Analysis of Precipitation Chemistry in the Urban and Forest Areas of Istanbul, Turkey

AbstractThere are many influences on precipitation chemistry and its variation. The transport paths of air masses before rainfall provide useful knowledge for evaluating and understanding the results of the analysis of the chemical compositions of precipitation. As a consequence, it is important to determine the variation of the chemical composition of rainwater by back trajectory analysis for estimating the source of the emissions. In this study, the rainwater samples were collected using specially designed collectors between November 1997 and June 1998 in the urban and forest areas of Istanbul. The rainwater samples were analyzed for major ion concentrations and pH. The volume‐weighed mean pH values were 5.8. The rainwater samples were classified to determine the source region of pollutants in rainwater using synoptic maps. In general, the results of the analysis on the chemical concentrations of precipitation during the measurement period showed that most of ions reached Istanbul from the directions of W‐SW, NW‐W, and NE‐N, respectively.

Chemical characteristics of rainwater collected at a western site of Jordan

A comprehensive study on the chemical composition of rainwater was carried out from October 2006 to May 2007 in Ghore El-Safi area western side of Jordan nearby the Dead Sea. Rainwater samples were analyzed for major ions (Ca 2+, Mg 2+, K +, Na +, NH 4 +, HCO 3 −, Cl −, NO 3 − and SO 4 2−) and trace metals (Fe, Al, Zn, Pb, Cu, and Cd). The highest concentration of elements is observed at the beginning of the rainfall season when large amounts of dust accumulated in the atmosphere scavenged by rain. The majority of rainwater had a neutral or alkaline character as a result of neutralization caused by the alkaline local dusts which contain large amount of CaCO 3. The pH ranged from 4.8 to 8.2 with a mean value of 6.9 ± 0.65 which was in alkaline range considering 5.6 as the neutral pH of cloud water with atmospheric CO 2 equilibrium. In the total 35 rain events, only three events were observed in acidic range (< 5.6) which occurred after continuous rains. The equivalent concentration of components followed the order: Ca 2+ > HCO 3 − > Cl − > Mg 2+ > NO 3 − > SO 4 2− > NH 4 + > Na + > K +. Rainwater chemistry was analyzed using Factor Component Analysis to find the possible sources of the measured species. Three components that accounted for 84% of the total variance were extracted sea salts spray (Na+, Cl − and Mg 2+), and soil particles (natural origin), (Mg 2+, Ca 2+ and HCO 3 −) and biomass burning (NH 4 +). The results obtained in this study are compared with those other studies conducted at different sites in the world. In general, the results of this study suggested that rainwater chemistry is strongly influenced by local anthropogenic sources (potash factory and agricultural activities in Ghore El-Safi area) rather than natural and marine sources. The pollutants in rainwater samples were mainly derived from long distance transport, local industry and traffic sources.

Investigating relationships between aerosol and rainwater compositions at different locations in Turkey

Chemical compositions of atmospheric aerosol and rainwater samples collected at four different locations in Turkey were compared to investigate the relationship between aerosol and rainwater compositions. Results showed that aerosol composition could be reflected closely in rainwater composition if below-cloud processes dominate in-cloud processes. This was clearly observed for crustal elements at all stations and for most elements at the urban station. However, at rural stations there were differences in rain and aerosol that were attributed to significant contributions from in-cloud processes. Seasonal patterns observed in aerosol composition showed general agreement with the corresponding temporal variations observed in concentrations of elements in rainwater. These observations suggest that certain features of rainwater composition can be constructed if concentration data are available for aerosol. However, differences in the data observed at the different stations and among various elements or element groups showed that the composition of rainwater constructed from aerosol data can be only a crude effort. Similarities between rain and aerosol compositions were more pronounced at the urban station as compared to the rural stations. Scavenging ratios calculated using paired daily data were variable both among stations and within a single station. Long-term averaged data were found to be more reliable in calculating scavenging ratios of elements and ions at all stations.

Comparison of sources affecting chemical compositions of aerosol and rainwater at different locations in Turkey

In this study, concentrations of elements and ions were measured in atmospheric aerosol and rainwater samples collected at two rural stations on the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts of Turkey. The relationship between chemical compositions of atmospheric aerosol and rainwater was investigated using receptor-oriented methods utilizing long-term data collected at the Antalya and Amasra stations in Turkey. Factor analysis performed on aerosol and rainwater data sets yielded that source types affecting chemical composition of rain and atmospheric particles were generally the same, but the contribution of each source type to rain and aerosol compositions showed differences. Potential source contribution function calculations were performed to determine if source regions affecting the chemical composition of rain and atmospheric particles were identical. The general pattern observed in distribution of source regions in rainwater and aerosol data sets showed some similarities at both stations, but there were substantial differences in detail. Source regions at the Antalya Station affecting the chemical composition of rainwater were local as compared to source regions affecting the composition of aerosol. The same difference was not observed in the Amasra Station. The source regions for crustal components of rainwater at the Antalya Station included western parts of Turkey, while European countries and North Africa were found to be the source regions affecting crustal components of aerosol at the Antalya Station. Potential source contribution function calculations indicated that major contributions to the anthropogenic components of aerosol at Antalya came mostly from the western parts of Turkey and European countries, while central Anatolia was the major source region contributing to anthropogenic components of rainwater at the Antalya Station. At the Amasra Station, the area north of the Black Sea and western parts of Turkey were the most important source regions affecting crustal and anthropogenic components for both aerosol and rainwater. It was observed that northern Europe, parts of Turkey, Ukraine, Russia, and some Balkan regions were the main source regions contributing to SO 4 2− concentrations both in rainwater and aerosol samples collected at both sampling sites.

Chemical Composition of Major Ions in Rainwater

The present study investigated the chemical composition of rainwater at Kabir nagar, Nari, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India. The rainwater samples were collected on event basis during June-July-August-2006 and were analyzed for pH, major anions Cl, NO(3), SO(4)) and cations (Ca, Mg, Na, K, NH4). The pH value varied from 6.0 to 7.3 (avg. 6.3 +/- 0.3) indicating alkaline nature of rainwater. The pH of the rainwater was found well above the reference pH (5.6), showing alkalinity during the monsoon season. The average and standard deviation of ionic composition was found to be 98.1 +/- 10.6 micro eql(-1). The total anions contribute 45.1% and cations 54.9%, respectively to rainwater. Neutralization factors (NF) followed a sequence of NF(Ca) > NF(Mg) > NF(NH4) with factors of 1.1, 0.38 and 0.15 indicating the crustal components are responsible for neutralization of anions. The average ratio of (NO(3) + Cl)/SO(4) observed as 1.1 indicates that nitric and hydrochloric acid influences the acidity of rainwater. The ratio of NH(4)/NO(3) and NH(4)/SO(4) was observed as 0.68 and 0.34 indicate that the possible compounds which may predominate in the atmosphere are NH(4)NO(3) and (NH(4))(2)SO(4). Ionic correlation was established to identify sources of origin. A good correlation was seen between Ca and Mg (r = 0.95); suggesting the common occurrence of these ions from crustal origin. Similarly, the acidic ions SO(4) and NO(3) correlated well (r = 0.60) indicating their origin from similar sources. Other relatively significant correlations were observed between Ca and SO4 (r = 0.92), Mg and SO(4) (r = 0.83), Ca and NO(3) (r = 0.09), Ca and Cl (r = 0.34) and Mg and Cl (r = 0.31), and Mg and NO(3) (r = 0.71). The observed rainwater ratio of Cl/Na (1.1) is closer to that of seawater ratio (1.16) indicates fractionation of sea-salt and modifications by non-marine constituents as the site is 834 km away from the sea coast. The nss-Ca contribution was observed as 95.7% suggesting their crustal origin whereas nss-Mg and nss-K shows their contribution as 87.9% and 83.2% indicating influence of soil sources. The nss-SO(4) contributed as 87.4% shows anthropogenic origin.

A four-year investigation on wet deposition in western Thailand

The investigation of pH variation and the chemical composition of rainwater have been studied from April 2003 to October 2006 at a rural area of Nakorn Pathom Province, western Thailand. The pH value ranged from 4.0 to 7.8 with an average of 6.1. Out of 319 rain events, 72 events were observed in acidic range (pH < 5.6). The pH of rainwater gradually increased over the sampling period. The volume-weighted mean concentrations (microeq/L) of ion species followed the order: Ca2+ > NH4+ > SO4(2-) > HCO3- > NO3- > Na+ > Cl- > CH3COO- > Mg2+ > K+ > H+ > HCOO- > PO4(3-). Neutralization factor calculations reveal that Ca2+ plays a major role in neutralization processes in this area. Enrichment factor calculations indicate that SO4(2-), K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ were originated from non-marine sources. The statistical measure principle component analysis indicates influence of various local emission sources e.g., soil, limestone mines, biomass burning and agricultural emissions, on the chemical composition of rainwater.

Changes in rainwater composition in Wilmington, NC during tropical storm Ernesto

Tropical weather events can contribute large wet depositional fluxes of biogeochemically important rainwater constituents over relatively short time periods. One composite sample during these events does not capture the dynamic nature of rainwater composition and can lead to misinterpretation of the impact of tropical events on local aquatic systems. Eight sequential samples were collected at 2–3 h intervals in Wilmington, NC during the duration of tropical storm Ernesto to examine a suite of rainwater constituents influenced by gas phase, aerosol, or mixed sources in the atmosphere. Real time wind speed and air mass back trajectories were used to examine the progression of the storm. Hydrogen peroxide and nitrate displayed washout trends during the storm. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), hydrogen ion (H +), and total mercury (HgT) displayed washout at the beginning of the storm but toward the end of the storm concentrations increased, which corresponded to a shift in air masses from marine to terrestrial, increased ground air mass influence, and increased wind speeds. Integrated fluorescence, a measure of the chromophoric properties of the DOC, was highest at the beginning of the storm and than decreased but unlike DOC, the fluorescence did not increase at the end of the storm, indicating a change in the DOC source and composition during the storm. Chloride and sulfate, which are strongly influenced by seasalt aerosols, increased with increasing wind speeds. Factors such as wind speed, storm trajectory, and rainwater volume influenced rainwater constituent concentrations; the relative importance of these factors was a function of the sources of these rainwater constituents in rainwater.

Role of aerosols in deciding pH of rainwater

Nature of precipitation – alkaline or acidic – depends upon the concentration of major water soluble inorganic gaseous and soil derived particulates dissolved in it. If concentration of cations is higher than that of anions, the precipitation becomes alkaline and vise-a-versa.&#x0D; pH is the main parameter indicating the nature of precipitation. If pH of the solution is &lt; 5.65, it is acidic and &gt; 5.65, alkaline, in the pH scale ranging between 0 &amp; 14.&#x0D; Difference in the chemical composition of rainwater having pH in the alkaline range and acidic range has been studied in this paper. For this purpose, precipitation chemistry data of Allahabad, Jodhpur, Mohanbari and Nagpur for the period 1988-97 have been considered. APWM &amp; S.D. have been worked out. Precipitation chemistry data considering APWM values in acidic range and in alkaline range have been separated and compared. Coefficients of correlation have been calculated in possible cation-anion combinations.&#x0D; It is seen that the lowest pH values (monthly mean) have been recorded during 1997 – MHB (3.77), NGP (4.12), both in acidic range. % Frequency of occurrences of pH values in acidic range was the highest at Mohanbari (66%) in the study period. Jodhpur recorded all pH values in alkaline range indicating influence of soil derived alkaline particulates. Among cations Ca+² has shown its dominance over all cations. Jodhpur has recorded the highest APWM value of Ca+² (9.27mg/lit) in 1997.&#x0D; Data have also been compared with WMO Laboratory simulated acid rain sample analysis data and other non-departmental data.&#x0D; Results are discussed in the paper.

Chemical composition of rainwater in the northeastern Romania, Iasi region (2003–2006)

Chemical composition of rainwater was studied in the northeastern Romania, Iasi region, and the concentrations of major inorganic and organic ions were measured in samples collected between April 2003 and December 2006. The pH of the rainwater is 5.92 (volume weighted mean average, VWM) suggesting a sufficient load of alkaline components neutralizing its acidity. On average, 97% of the acidity in the collected samples is neutralized by CaCO 3 and NH 3. Clear seasonal variations were observed for some of the identified ions (e.g., SO 4 2−, NO 3 −, Ca 2+, NH 4 +). The data obtained during this work revealed that both concentrations and fluxes of anthropogenic source-related ions (e.g., SO 4 2−, NO 3 − and NH 4 +) are among the highest reported for European sites. It is shown that meteorology and long-range transport processes may concur to their high levels.

Dissolved organic carbon in rainwater: Glassware decontamination and sample preservation and volatile organic carbon

The efficiency of different methods for the decontamination of glassware used for the analysis of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was tested using reported procedures as well as new ones proposed in this work. A Fenton solution bath (1.0 mmol L −1 Fe 2+ and 100 mmol L −1 H 2O 2) for 1 h or for 30 min employing UV irradiation showed to combine simplicity, low cost and high efficiency. Using the optimized cleaning procedure, the DOC for stored UV-irradiated ultra-pure water reached concentrations below the limit of detection (0.19 μmol C L −1). Filtered (0.7 μm) rain samples maintained the DOC integrity for at least 7 days when stored at 4 °C. The volatile organic carbon (VOC) fraction in the rain samples collected at two sites in São Paulo state (Brazil) ranged from 0% to 56% of their total DOC content. Although these high-VOC concentrations may be derived from the large use of ethanol fuel in Brazil, our results showed that when using the high-temperature catalytic oxidation technique, it is essential to measure DOC rather than non-purgeble organic carbon to estimate organic carbon, since rainwater composition can be quite variable, both geographically and temporally.

Organic composition in the dry season rainwater of Guangzhou, China

This paper reports the results from a study of the organic composition of rainwater collected at Tianhe district of Guangzhou city, P.R. China, during the dry season. Several special setups of a pyrex bottle with a glass funnel were used for the collection of the rainwater. Three fractions (aliphatics, PAHs and fatty acids) were separated from the total extracted organic compounds and identified with GC-MS. The molecular diagnostic ratios were utilized for the source reconciliation. The aliphatic hydrocarbon and the biomarkers (triterpanes and steranes) distribution show a characteristic of the petrochemical source in the rainwater samples. The PAHs diagnostic ratios [e.g. MP/P, MPI, Fl/ (Fl + Py)] indicated vehicular emissions. The fatty acids ratios (e.g. C(18:1)/C(18:0) and C(18:2)/C(18:0)) reflect the contribution of cooking emissions, while the higher plant waxes play little part. Moreover, the values of MP/P, MPI, BaA/(BaA + CT) and BeP/(BeP + BaP) reflected the origin of the long-distance transportation to some extent. On the whole, for the dry season rainwater, all molecular diagnostic ratios indicated the complexity of the organic composition of the rain, which have the characteristics of both a local emission contribution and a long-distance transportation contribution.

Spatial and temporal patterns of throughfall quantity and quality in a tropical montane forest in Ecuador

Summary In forests, complex canopy processes control the change in volume and chemical composition of rain water. We hypothesize that (i) spatial patterns, (ii) the temporal stability of spatial patterns, and (iii) the temporal course of solute concentrations can be used to explore these processes. The study area at 1950 m above sea level in the south Ecuadorian Andes is far away from anthropogenic emission sources and marine influences. It received ca. 2200 mm of rain annually. We collected rain and throughfall on an event and within-event basis for five precipitation periods between August and October 2005 at up to 25 sites and analyzed the samples for pH and concentrations of K, Na, Ca, Mg, NH 4 + , Cl−, NO 3 - , PO 4 3 - , and total N (TN), P (TP), and organic C (TOC). Cumulative throughfall amounted to 79% of rainfall. Compared with other tropical forests, rainfall solute concentrations were low and throughfall solute concentrations similar. Volumes and solute concentrations of rainfall were spatially and temporally little variable. The spatial coefficient of variation for throughfall volumes was 53%, for solute concentrations 28–292%, and for deposition 33–252%. Temporal persistence of spatial patterns was high for throughfall volumes and varied among solutes. Spatial patterns of K, Mg and TOC concentrations in throughfall were highly persistent. The spatial patterns of throughfall fluxes were less stable than those of concentrations. During a monitoring time of 72 h, solute concentrations in throughfall of selected rain events remained at a similar level indicating that the leachable element pool in the canopy was not exhausted. Our results demonstrate that the passage of rain through the canopy of a tropical montane forest in Ecuador results in a spatially heterogeneous throughfall pattern with a considerable stability during three months. There is a large leachable element pool in the canopy, which is not depleted by the typical light rain within 72 h.

Summer rain events in south-east Asia: Spatial and temporal variations

During the summer monsoon period in south-east Asia marine airstreams normally prevail at the south China coast. However, when tropical cyclones approach then polluted airmasses from south-eastern China can impart high ionic concentrations and high acidity to rainwater. This is illustrated by two examples and the small-scale horizontal variations in rainwater composition are minor during these episodes. Since long-term quality-assured studies of the composition of rainwater in south-east Asia are scarce, the results at three sampling sites in Hong Kong during summer monsoon periods are compared with previous data from the same season. The results for the mid- to end-1990's show a similar trend to those for the ambient concentrations of sulphate and nitrate in aerosol in Hong Kong, which show flattened trends from 1995 to 1999. A marked increase in acidity is found in the summer monsoon period of 2004 which is attributed to the greater proportion of approaching cyclone weather systems in the dataset, reflecting both the increased local emission sources and the burgeoning economic growth of the Pearl River Delta Region. Comparison of the rainwater composition with that at other south-east Asian cities during the summer monsoon period shows that it is most acidic in Hong Kong.