Cooperation in social insect colonies depends on complex chemical communication, requiring a large array of chemosensory receptors. Ant odorant receptors (ORs) were dramatically expanded compared to other insects, most notably in the "9-exon" subfamily, which was implicated in responding to cuticular hydrocarbons, a major class of signalling compounds. These observations indicate adaptive evolution of olfactory functions, but this process was never studied in the context of the evolution of specific sociobiological traits. The Global Ant Genomics Alliance has compiled 163 high-quality ant genomes, enabling detailed study of OR evolution in unprecedented detail. Analysing 55,068 ORs across the phylogeny, we tested for association between sociobiological traits and adaptive evolution of ORs, including gene duplication and adaptive sequence evolution. We identified strong enrichment of positive selection on 9-exon ORs in the ancestor of the formicoid clade, which evolved larger colonies and greater reproductive division of labour. This result indicates a key role of chemical communication in the early evolution of complex social organization. We also observed enrichment of positive selection on 9-exon ORs associated with the recent evolution of continuous worker polymorphism in multiple lineages. Surprisingly, the evolution of other sociobiological traits was associated with reduced positive selection on ORs. These results suggest that worker polymorphism involves more extensive adaptation of chemical communication compared to other aspects of ant sociobiology. By analysing the most comprehensive OR dataset to date, we provide new insights into the specific context in which ORs played a major role in the elaboration of social traits in ants.

Cooperative breeding is a social system where offspring receive care not only from their parents but also from other group members. The life history traits related to the evolutionary transition towards such complex systems are still poorly understood. This study investigated the evolutionary transition from non-cooperative to cooperative breeding in lamprologine cichlid fishes endemic to Lake Tanganyika using phylogenetic comparative methods. Ancestral state reconstruction revealed that the evolutionary transition from non-cooperative to cooperative breeding occurred at least seven times independently. Comparative analyses using life history data obtained from field observations and from published literature revealed an evolutionary link between cooperative breeding and clutch and body size, but not egg size: cooperative breeders were smaller and laid fewer eggs than non-cooperative breeders. These findings suggest an evolutionary scenario where cooperative breeding evolved in smaller species, most likely because of ecological factors, such as an increased predation risk, driving the evolution of complex social systems. This was followed by a reduction in clutch size. These results shed light on the role of ecological settings in life history trait evolution and how they mediate the transition towards a complex social organization.

ABSTRACT This paper aims to contribute understanding of how new complex socioeconomic structures (in this case the early city-state) emerge following the breakdown of states and deurbanization processes. Deurbanization studies are rooted in the broader ‘spatial turn’ recognizing space as cultural: we highlight the role of storytelling and placemaking in the building of posturban social identities, ultimately instrumental in building new complex social structures. Selection and contextualization of results from recent field research on deurbanization processes in Crete from c. 1200 BC illustrates the discussion and raises questions about where long-term deurbanization stops and conditions for new urbanization begin. A site and region in Crete recently subject to intensive research form a central case study. Though deurbanization was pushed by the disintegration of Bronze Age states, elites, and economic systems across the east Mediterranean, perhaps starting as early as the mid-thirteenth century BC, the process in material terms can be perceived as a shared pathway of resilience, rather than a set of emergency adaptations. It was also a long process punctuated by discontinuities and further challenges for the island’s population. In this process clearly lie the roots of new kinds of urbanization, apparent in the record by the seventh century BC.

Same-sex sexual behaviour (SSB) is widespread across animal species; however, its evolutionary origins and ecological underpinnings remain poorly understood. In social animals, SSB is probably shaped by both genetic and environmental factors. For instance, a recent study in rhesus macaques indicates that while SSB is partially heritable and genetically based, it is also strongly influenced by environmental and social conditions. Here we compiled species-level data on 491 non-human primate species, documenting SSB occurrence and prevalence in 59 species, and examined its associations with 15 environmental, life history and social traits using phylogenetic regression and structural equation modelling. SSB occurrence was more likely in species inhabiting drier environments with increased food scarcity and predation pressure, in species with greater size dimorphism and longer lifespans and in those with more complex social structures and hierarchies. Structural equation modelling further indicated that environmental and life history traits influence SSB mainly indirectly, whereas social complexity directly promotes its occurrence. Together, these findings highlight SSB as a context-dependent behaviour shaped by interactions among ecological, life history and social factors, offering insights into the sexual diversity and social evolution of primates.

Offspring and kin care are common in nature, while non-kin societies are unusual due to their susceptibility to cheaters. Here, we investigated the kinship of mast-building amphipods, Dyopedos bispinis (Gurjanova, 1930). Our goal was to determine if all mast inhabitants are descendants of a single founder female or if they represent a more complex social structure. We sequenced and assembled the complete mitochondrial genome of D. bispinis along with 58 partial genomes from four masts. One of the studied masts contained several adult females with embryos, all of which had identical partial mitochondrial genome sequences. This shows that masts can be inhabited by individuals from different generations. Mitochondrial genome sequences of ten mother-embryo pairs confirm maternal mtDNA inheritance in D. bispinis . However, another mast contained several groups of female individuals exhibiting pronounced (~0.7 substitutions per 1000 b.p.) distance between the groups. The genetic distance between groups from the same mast was not less than the genetic distance from specimens of other masts. This suggests collective usage of the mast by non-related families. If it is true that several female D. bispinis individuals invest resources into maintaining one mast, this case may suggest non-kin cooperation among amphipods. Overall, our study provides an insight into the family structures of mast-inhabiting amphipods and presents a new model for studying shared construction exploitation by distantly related individuals.

Criminal networks feature complex structures and high internal concealment. Social computing methods and deep learning provide a possibility to identify hidden key figures and predict criminal behaviors within them. To this end, a Key Person Identification Model Based on Account Association (KPI-AA) is proposed. This model combines local neighbor similarity and global edge betweenness, and uses graph neural network (GNN) to conduct in-depth characterization of key nodes in social networks. It is applied to reveal potential organizational cores in complex social structures and identify potential diffusion paths in criminal networks. Experimental results show the following: In the dimension of propagation dynamics, KPI-AA infects 34 nodes at 40-time steps in the Zachary network, and reaches 329.6 nodes at 150-time steps in the Harry Potter network. Both results are higher than those of baseline models. In terms of network robustness, after removing 70% of the nodes in the Zachary network, the relative connectivity of KPI-AA is only 0.087. Regarding ranking consistency, the Kendall's tau coefficient on the Twitter dataset reaches 0.467. Computational efficiency analysis indicates that while maintaining performance advantages in propagation dynamics, network robustness, and ranking consistency, KPI-AA still exhibits excellent scalability and practical deployment feasibility. The above results indicate that KPI-AA has advantages in propagation speed, revealing network vulnerability, and ranking consistency. Therefore, the KPI-AA model is practical in identifying core members of criminal networks and predicting criminal behaviors, and can serve social security governance and criminal investigation applications.

Bees are important global pollinators that play a vital role in maintaining ecosystems and supporting global food production. They also exhibit a diversity of social organization, making them ideal model organisms for studying the evolution of sociality in animals. Recent advancements in genome sequencing have enabled researchers to address longstanding questions about the evolution of social behaviour in bees, particularly in the relatively few species that exhibit complex social structures, such as Apis. Whole genome phylogenies have enhanced our understanding of the complex evolutionary history of bees, providing a foundation for studying the evolution of specific traits, including eusociality. Recent transcriptomic and alternative splicing studies have advanced our understanding of how gene regulation and expression patterns contribute to behavioural plasticity, caste differentiation, and the emergence of social complexity. Comparative genomics across a range of bees with varying social behaviours has aided our understanding of the genomic features associated with social evolution and has shed light on its molecular underpinnings. Genomic approaches like GWAS and population genomic comparisons, combined with advanced sequencing technologies, have revolutionized the study of bee evolution, social behaviour, and environmental interactions. Pollen metabarcoding and environmental DNA (eDNA) techniques are now being used to quantify the intricate and complex interactions between bees and the plants they visit, and to identify other environmental factors, including pathogens that impact bee health. Additionally, techniques like museomics (using DNA from museum specimens) and broader genomic approaches have been instrumental in revealing how bees have been affected by anthropogenic changes. These tools offer valuable insights into population genetics, conservation biology, and the impact of environmental changes on bee populations. These advancements both provide critical insights into the molecular basis of eusociality and species adaptation and offer valuable tools for addressing the urgent challenges facing bee conservation due to anthropogenic change. By leveraging these genomic approaches, researchers can inform strategies for the preservation and sustainable management of bee populations worldwide.

This study aims to identify the challenges and opportunities in implementing Christian Religious Education (PAK) for Generation Alpha in the technological era, particularly in Batam City a dynamic industrial and port city with complex social structures. Generation Alpha is the first generation to be born into a fully digital environment, resulting in unique characteristics in learning, thinking, and the formation of faith-based values. Using a qualitative approach through a literature study method, this research analyzes various academic sources and relevant materials related to generational development, digital learning theories, and current PAK practices. The findings reveal that the primary challenges of PAK for Generation Alpha include declining spiritual attention, the dominance of instant digital media, and the disparity in teachers’ abilities to adapt to technology. On the other hand, significant opportunities arise in utilizing technology as a means of conveying faith values through creative approaches such as gamification, interactive media, and project-based learning. This study highlights the urgent need to transform PAK methods and curricula to be contextual and relevant to the digital world. Teachers, parents, and Christian educational institutions in Batam must collaborate to develop an interactive and value-driven model of PAK. Future research is recommended to explore the empirical effectiveness of digital media in shaping the faith character of Generation Alpha.

Climate change has significant impacts on animal populations, especially on species with complex social structures, such as cooperative breeders. These species are dependent on stable social networks to increase reproductive success and survival, and individuals cooperate in activities such as food provisioning, territory defense, and offspring care. But growing climate variability, including droughts, fires and heatwaves, is interfering with these networks by altering the availability of habitats, food resources and environmental conditions. The article examines the impact of climate change on social relationships in cooperatively-breeding species in varying disturbance gradients. A combination of field observations, social network analysis, and modeling of climate data enabled us to evaluate changes in social interactions, breeding success, and group cohesion in species such as the superb fairy-wren (Malurus cyaneus) and the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). The climate disturbances increase, the social networks become less stable in terms of reproductive success. To cite an example, breeding success of wild dogs was reduced by a factor of 25 in high and low disturbance areas (F = 4.72, p < 0.05). Individuals in poorly bonded social groups were stressed and less cooperative. These results show how cooperative breeders are susceptible to climate change and how the social structures help conserve them. The paper will conclude with recommendations for specific conservation measures, such as habitat rehabilitation, reduced human-wildlife conflict, and social network resilience, to mitigate the impacts of climate change on cooperative breeders.

Corvids (Aves: Corvidae) are renowned for their advanced cognitive abilities, complex social structures, and ecological adaptability, making them model organisms for studies in ecology, evolution, behaviour and cognition. However, comprehensive datasets integrating morphological, life-history and socio-ecological traits across the family remain scarce, limiting cross-species comparisons and evolutionary analyses. Here, I present a dataset compiling key traits for 135 corvid species worldwide. Data include morphological (e.g., body measurements, endocranial volume), life-history (e.g. age at dispersal, life span), ecological (e.g., habitat, trophic niche, geographic range) and social (e.g., sociality, breeding system) traits. This resource will facilitate comparative research on the evolutionary pressures driving corvid behaviour, support investigations into the ecological and social drivers of evolution, and advance our understanding of avian adaptation in rapidly changing environments.

DNA methylation has been proposed as an epigenetic driver of phenotypic plasticity in social insects, yet experimental evidence remains limited. Even less is known about the role of epigenetic mechanisms underlying behavioural and social polymorphism. We quantified CpG methylation for the socially polymorphic harvester ant Pogonomyrmex californicus across larvae, pupae, workers and queens using Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) sequencing. These results were compared against the current gold standard whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS). Methylation sites were highly correlated between WGBS and ONT, validating the use of ONT for high-throughput epigenomic profiling. Genome-wide methylation was low (~3%), consistent with findings in other (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), and highly clustered within gene bodies, especially exons, while introns, intergenic DNA, promoters and transposable elements were hypo-methylated. Gene body methylation (GBM) correlated positively with gene expression in queens, corroborating previous reports for other insects, suggesting a conserved regulatory role for DNA methylation in insects. A comparison between developmental stages revealed significant stage-specific differences in GBM frequencies. Workers and queens, although from different populations, shared a substantial core of methylated loci enriched for olfactory-receptor activity and biosynthetic pathways, processes that are central to caste-specific behaviour and physiology. These shared methylation signatures, coupled with stage-dependent variability, highlight DNA methylation as a possible factor in developmental stages and caste differentiation. In the future, it is essential to disentangle the effects of caste and variation between populations. Our study establishes P. californicus as a powerful model for dissecting how epigenetic modifications interface with gene expression to generate developmental and complex social organization, which is largely unexplored.

This study aims to analyze the dynamics of complex social structures in Najib Mahfuz's literary works through the lens of Pierre Bourdieu's sociological approach to literature. The background of this study is based on Hara's central position in Mahfuz's narrative, which serves as a microcosm of Egyptian society, marked by value conflicts and power struggles. Using a qualitative descriptive method with a textual approach, this study dissects three selected short stories: "Zakirat al-Jiran" (Memories of Neighbors), "Al-Hutaf" (The Call), and "Sada al-Nisyan" (Echoes of Forgetfulness). The analysis specifically applies Bourdieu's triadic concept of Habitus, Capital (economic and Symbolic), and Field, or Arena, to uncover the hidden mechanisms of domination. The study's results reveal diverse manifestations of social structures. "Zakirat al-Jiran" depicts the phenomenon of hysteresis of habitus, where conflicts continue to be reproduced blindly despite the loss of their historical roots, indicating the stagnation of tradition. "Al-Hutaf" highlights the violent clash between Economic Capital and Symbolic Capital, where the moral integrity of society successfully resists the wealth obtained from corruption, proving that social legitimacy cannot always be bought with money. Finally, "Sada al-Nisyan" criticizes the cycle of tyranny; the return of the main character's cruelty after amnesia proves that changes in individual behavior are meaningless without a transformation of the structure of the power arena itself. In conclusion, Mahfouz describes a social structure that is resistant to change, where the position of social agents is largely determined by the accumulation of symbolic capital and habitus that have been firmly institutionalized in society.

Contemporary cities and metropolises, as complex spatial and social structures, require innovative tools for promotion, education, and the identification of development potential. The search for such tools prompted the authors to conduct the research. This article attempts to assess the effectiveness of urban and metropolitan games as tools of territorial marketing and as means of supporting spatial education and social participation. The research is based on the analysis of 42 games with urban and metropolitan themes, selected according to defined criteria. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods were applied, including documentation analysis, comparative analysis techniques, statistical methods, case studies, and coding of games across seven parameters (dimensions), using five descriptors (coded 1–5) per parameter. The research results indicate a high diversity among the analyzed games in terms of structure, function, and application. The proposed typology of games allowed for an in-depth, systematic comparison. The identification of five typological clusters allowed for an assessment of the advantages and limitations of individual game forms. This provided data on the suitability of individual game types for various purposes, including their application in territorial marketing and urban education. The findings confirm that urban and metropolitan games can play a significant role in building spatial awareness, supporting planning processes, and promoting urban areas. They represent an innovative tool supporting the sustainable development of cities and metropolises, particularly in the areas of resident engagement in decision-making processes, collaboration between authorities, residents, and non-governmental organizations, planning with consideration for future generations, as well as fostering—even among the younger generation—a sense of shared responsibility for urban space and the decisions undertaken.

Sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) navigate complex oceanic environments and social structures. In the waters off Dominica, female and juvenile whales form long-lasting social units and vocal clans, distinguished by unique click dialects known as codas. While prey availability is often seen as a driver of whale movements, we highlight the role of sociality in shaping spatial behavior. Using 20 years of photo-identification data, we examined the sequential presence of social units for predictable patterns linked to social structure. Applying long short-term memory (LSTM) neural networks to sequences of one to five days across 16 states including 14 units, mature males and unknown units, we achieved prediction accuracies over 60%, far exceeding random chance (0.00001526). We then compared unit-to-unit transition probabilities to their social association matrix using a Hemelrijk test, revealing strong alignment between movement and social bonds for some of the units. To support long-term monitoring, we developed an acoustic classification method based on inter-pulse intervals (IPIs) in echolocation clicks, serving as acoustic fingerprints linked to body size. Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) classified units with 78.26% accuracy. Our findings provide quantitative evidence that sperm whale movements are socially coordinated and predictable, offering new insights into the spatial and social dynamics of sperm whale societies and highlighting the role of social affiliation in shaping large-scale movement patterns.

ABSTRACT In this article, we examine the emerging role of women entrepreneurs within changing socio-cultural institutions. The current literature presents limited insight on the processual dynamics of entrepreneurship among socio-cultural change, and so we adopt an inductive theory-building approach, drawing on the concept of institutional entrepreneurship. From this, we see the interaction of women’s entrepreneurial practices with complex social and cultural structures. Our qualitative data draw on 31 interviews with female entrepreneurs operating in Saudi Arabia, phenomenologically capturing their experiences as they engage with the institutions of their societal surroundings. We explore how entrepreneurial enactment takes place within patriarchal constraint and socialized expectations of women. Top-down regulatory change may open space for women’s entrepreneurship, but social change demands careful navigation, with only gradual cultural shifts. We characterize Saudi women entrepreneurs as institutional change agents in a recursive process between their entrepreneurial activities and the dominant social systems of family and societal expectations. Our findings contribute to the understanding of how entrepreneurial agency interacts with the forces of context. Importantly, we move beyond the celebration of emancipated activism and instead see Saudi women’s entrepreneurial activity as part of a multifaceted and gradual change process, evolving towards a progressive entrepreneurial culture.

Shelter construction has been observed in many fauna but is most common in birds, mammals and insects. Whilst nest construction for birthing and rearing young has been observed in the Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa) and captive Visayan warty pigs (Sus cebifrons negrinus), non-nest structures are unheard of in suids until now. The Visayan warty pig is a critically endangered species that is currently restricted to two islands in the West Visayan faunal region of the Philippines. Furthermore, in situ ecological research on this species is severely limited, hampering conservation efforts as it is threatened with habitat loss and population decline. Here, we describe the novel discovery of a warty pig made structure with the potential function of providing thermoregulatory assistance and avoiding heavy rain. This structure appears to be constructed by male individuals in the Visayan warty pig, for assumed weather avoidance and environmental regulation, and whilst there is no conclusive proof of the species architectural ingenuity or structure use, we also highlight identical structures made and used in the same way by the sister species the Mindoro warty pig (Sus oliveri) from a separate corroborating observation. The Visayan warty pig was the first wild pig species to be recorded using tools, it is known for its complex social structures and high levels of intelligence, but now it has elevated its intellectual potential as the first pig species to create artificial structures for shelter.

Problem definition: The reliability of controlled experiments, commonly referred to as “A/B tests,” is often compromised by network interference, where the outcomes of individual units are influenced by interactions with others. Significant challenges in this domain include the lack of accounting for complex social network structures and the difficulty in suitably characterizing network interference. Methodology/results: To address these challenges, we propose a machine learning-based method. We introduce “causal network motifs” and utilize transparent machine learning models to characterize network interference patterns underlying an A/B test on networks. Our method’s performance has been demonstrated through simulations on both a synthetic experiment and a large-scale test on Instagram. Our experiments show that our approach outperforms conventional methods such as design-based cluster randomization and conventional analysis-based neighborhood exposure mapping. Managerial implications: Our approach provides a comprehensive and automated solution to address network interference for A/B testing practitioners. This aids in informing strategic business decisions in areas such as marketing effectiveness and product customization. Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/msom.2023.0462 .

ABSTRACT In the early twentieth century, scholars studied the Nuer social organisation and described it as a system of interconnected patrilineal lineages, clans, tribal segments, and tribes. They viewed the Nuer society as lacking centralised political institutions and complex social structures. However, this observation was based on the Nuer of the nineteenth century, who had weak ties to their common origin and history, allowing for intermixing with neighbouring peoples, mainly Dinka and Anuak. Over the twentieth century, factors such as globalisation, colonialism, and civil wars caused the Nuer society to undergo significant changes. They transitioned from a genealogically segmented pastoralist society to an ethnic group. However, this ethnic identity is currently facing challenges and fragmentation due to displacement and increased mobility. This paper examines how the Nuer have defined boundaries between themselves and others throughout history, depending on the cultural and structural contexts that shape their identity, through an in-depth analysis of literature, oral history, historical research, and interviews.

The purpose of this research is to examine the social and political life of the Shabak community, which is a minority group living in Iraq. Shabaks are an ethno-religious group residing in Iraq, distinguished primarily by their religious characteristics rather than their ethnic background. Like other non-Arab ethnic and religious communities in Iraq, Shabaks have been subjected to discrimination, oppression, and forced migration. The study explores how the historical narratives of the Shabak community have been constructed and transmitted over time. It sheds light on how Shabaks have managed to preserve their religious and ethnic identity within the complex social structure of their region in which they live. Additionally, the challenges faced by the Shabaks during the ISIS attacks, which began in 2014, are examined in broad terms. In conclusion, the Shabak community has struggled to achieve its political aspirations due to being perpetually overshadowed by ongoing ethnic and religious conflicts. The data for this research were collected through a literature review, and a general analysis of the Shabak community was conducted based on the findings obtained from the literature studies.

For social animals, group living can serve to buffer against stressors. However, changes in the social environment may also represent a stressor leading to changes in glucocorticoids-hormones responsible for maintaining homeostasis under stressful conditions. We studied glucocorticoids in captive bonobos (Pan paniscus), a social species of great ape with a complex social organization. We monitored bonobos in captivity before, during, and after a change occurred in their social environment; when a new group member was introduced at the facility. We repeatedly measured individuals' cortisol (corrected for creatinine, or variation in the concentration of samples) from urine samples and found individuals of the established group did not change in cortisol during or following their introduction to a novel bonobo individual. The emigrating bonobo, however, had elevated cortisol upon arrival which decreased as she was introduced to each existing bonobo at the facility. These results suggested that the new individual may have experienced stronger stressors relative to resident individuals during this captive introduction. We recommend based on the results from this study, that social animals be introduced to new group members carefully, and to avoid prolonged social isolation for new animals. When changes in social dynamics are driven by human caretakers rather than initiated by the animals themselves, care should be taken to mimic natural dispersal patterns when possible.