European Complex Research Articles

OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPEAN FORTIFICATIONS IN THE 15th-19th CENTURIES

The study of the evolution of the development of defensive European forts as a monument of military architecture is relevant nowadays. Wars caused the construction of fortifications to protect the territories of cities. The evolution of medieval fortresses was accompanied by technical progress in construction tools and techniques and the technical skills of military engineers. Fortification complexes in Europe over the centuries, with the development of firearms, were modernized and improved in accordance with the requirements of the time. The reason for the evolution of fortifications was the introduction of new methods, tactics and military strategies. In the process of research, the principles of defense art, fortification technologies in the development of the construction of European forts were studied. Experimenting with new fortification systems, military engineers and architects created defensive complexes that impress with the wisdom of construction, aesthetic and landscape sensitivity. The article traces the evolution of the development of defensive forts in Europe during the 15th - 19th centuries, which characterize the cultural landscape and form the cultural defense heritage.

Rapid and synchronous response of outlet glaciers to ocean warming on the Barents Sea coast, Novaya Zemlya

Abstract The Arctic is a hotspot for climate warming, making it crucial to quantify the sea level rise contribution from its ice masses. Novaya Zemlya's ice caps are the largest glacier complex in Europe and are a major contributor to contemporary sea level rise. Here we show that Novaya Zemlya outlet glaciers on the Barents Sea coast respond rapidly and consistently to oceanic forcing at annual timescales, likely due to their exposure to Atlantic Water variability. Glaciers on the Kara Sea show more variable response, likely reflecting their reduced exposure to Atlantic Water. Data demonstrate that the pause in glacier retreat previously observed on Novaya Zemlya between 2013 and 2015 has not persisted and that these changes correspond to ocean temperature variability on the Barents Sea coast. We document a marked shift to warmer air and ocean temperatures, and reduced sea ice concentrations from 2005 onwards. Although we identify ocean warming as the primary trigger for glacier retreat, we suggest that multi-year thinning, driven by the shift towards warmer air temperatures since 2005, pre-conditioned Novaya Zemlya's glaciers to retreat. Despite commonality in the timing of outlet glacier retreat, the magnitude is highly variable during rapid retreat phases, which we attribute to glacier-specific factors.

Investigation on Flavescence Dorée in North-Western Italy Identifies Map-M54 (16SrV-D/Map-FD2) as the Only Phytoplasma Genotype in Vitis vinifera L. and Reveals the Presence of New Putative Reservoir Plants.

Flavescence dorée (FD) is the most important phytoplasma-associated disease of the grapevine yellows complex in Europe. Recent studies highlighted a great genetic diversity within FD phytoplasma (FDp) strains and demonstrated that their diffusion is not related exclusively to the pathosystem including Vitis vinifera L. and Scaphoideus titanus but involves additional vectors and reservoir plants. This study aimed to investigate FD epidemiology in north-western Italy, with a particular focus on FDp hosts. During field surveys, leaf samples were collected from symptomatic grapevines and other symptomless plant species, and insects were collected within and around vineyards. Phytoplasmas belonging to the ribosomal group 16SrV were detected and typed using nested-PCR-based amplification and nucleotide sequence analyses of the map gene. All symptomatic grapevines were found to be infected by the FDp genotype M54, prevalent in S. titanus and also identified in other known and newly reported hosts. Interestingly, other FDp strains (M38, M50, M51, M121) and FDp-related strains (M39, M43, M48), never detected in grapevines, were largely identified in several known and newly reported host plants and insects including S. titanus. Such evidence confirmed the complexity of FD ecology, expanding the knowledge on the range of FDp host plants putatively involved in the disease spread.

The synergistic roles of green openness and economic complexity in environmental sustainability of Europe's largest economy: Implications for technology-intensive and environmentally friendly products

The degrowth approach posits the idea that sustainable development and economic expansion are mutually exclusive. Conversely, it is believed that international trade within a complex economic system can help distribute green products to simultaneously ensure economic expansion and sustainable development. For this reason, the dynamic ARDL simulations technique was adopted to analyze the German economy's data from 2000 to 2020 toward determining the specific and interactive ecological implications of international green openness and economic complexity in Europe's largest economy. We discovered that green openness and economic complexity each have desirable impacts on ecofootprint, and their interaction further confirms a strong ecological-enhancing synergistic effect. The presence of the EKC phenomenon was also upheld from the analysis while clean energy exerts a positive impact on Germany's environmental quality level. The study further posits that a faster shift into the manufacture of technology-intensive and environmentally friendly products is possible for nations that invest in strengthening their internal technological skills to curb ecological harm. It is therefore advocated that even if the manufacturing of green items is not optimally done domestically, the special opportunities presented by international trade in the distribution of green products should always be leveraged to foster environmental sustainability.

English and other languages in a plurilingual pedagogical approach: A case study from northern Italy

Language teaching constantly needs to be adapted to changing societal realities, such as the spread of English as an international language or the growing linguistic complexity in Europe. A key question is whether and how languages could be treated together in school programmes to cater to a multilingual milieu. This article analyses a plurilingual pedagogical approach that is adopted in a few primary schools in the Italian province of South Tyrol. The research is a qualitative case study and draws on various theoretical perspectives, including the method model developed by Richards and Rodgers (1982, 2001, 2014). The dataset comprises analogue and digital data gathered through participant observation, field notes, personal communications, audio recordings, and school documents. Results show how a multilingual turn has taken root in the context examined, while reinforcing English acquisition.

Identification by High-Throughput Real-Time PCR of 30 Major Circulating Listeria monocytogenes Clonal Complexes in Europe.

Listeria monocytogenes is a ubiquitous bacterium that causes a foodborne illness, listeriosis. Most strains can be classified into major clonal complexes (CCs) that account for the majority of outbreaks and sporadic cases in Europe. In addition to the 20 CCs known to account for the majority of human and animal clinical cases, 10 CCs are frequently reported in food production, thereby posing a serious challenge for the agrifood industry. Therefore, there is a need for a rapid and reliable method to identify these 30 major CCs. The high-throughput real-time PCR assay presented here provides accurate identification of these 30 CCs and eight genetic subdivisions within four CCs, splitting each CC into two distinct subpopulations, along with the molecular serogroup of a strain. Based on the BioMark high-throughput real-time PCR system, our assay analyzes 46 strains against 40 real-time PCR arrays in a single experiment. This European study (i) designed the assay from a broad panel of 3,342 L. monocytogenes genomes, (ii) tested its sensitivity and specificity on 597 sequenced strains collected from 24 European countries, and (iii) evaluated its performance in the typing of 526 strains collected during surveillance activities. The assay was then optimized for conventional multiplex real-time PCR for easy implementation in food laboratories. It has already been used for outbreak investigations. It represents a key tool for assisting food laboratories to establish strain relatedness with human clinical strains during outbreak investigations and for helping food business operators by improving their microbiological management plans. IMPORTANCE Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) is the reference method for Listeria monocytogenes typing but is expensive and takes time to perform, from 3 to 5 days for laboratories that outsource sequencing. Thirty major MLST clonal complexes (CCs) are circulating in the food chain and are currently identifiable only by sequencing. Therefore, there is a need for a rapid and reliable method to identify these CCs. The method presented here enables the rapid identification, by real-time PCR, of 30 CCs and eight genetic subdivisions within four CCs, splitting each CC into two distinct subpopulations. The assay was then optimized on different conventional multiplex real-time PCR systems for easy implementation in food laboratories. The two assays will be used for frontline identification of L. monocytogenes isolates prior to whole-genome sequencing. Such assays are of great interest for all food industry stakeholders and public agencies for tracking L. monocytogenes food contamination.

High prevalence of clonally related ST182 NDM-1-producing Enterobacter cloacae complex clinical isolates in Greece

NDM-type metallo-β-lactamase (MBL)-producing Enterobacterales remain uncommon in the European region, especially among species other than Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli. The aim of this study was to describe epidemiological and molecular characteristics of a widespread NDM-1-producing Enterobacter cloacae complex outbreak in Greece. Over a 6-year period (March 2016-March 2022), a retrospective study was conducted in a tertiary care Greek hospital. Ninety single-patient carbapenem-non-susceptible E. cloacae complex clinical isolates were recovered consecutively. The isolates were subjected to further investigation, including antimicrobial susceptibility testing and combined disc tests for carbapenemase production, polymerase chain reaction and sequencing for resistance genes, molecular fingerprinting by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), plasmid profiling, replicon typing, conjugation experiments, genotyping by multi-locus sequence typing (MLST), whole-genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Phenotypic and molecular testing confirmed the presence of blaNDM-1 in 47 (52.2%) of the E. cloacae complex isolates. MLST analysis clustered all but four of the NDM-1 producers into a single MLST sequence type (ST182), whereas single isolates belonged to different sequence types (ST190, ST269, ST443 and ST743). PFGE analysis revealed that ST182 isolates were clustered into a single clonal type, with three subtypes, which differed from the clonal types detected among the remaining carbapenem non-susceptible E. cloacae complex isolates identified during the study period. All ST182 blaNDM-1-carrying isolates also harboured the blaACT-16 AmpC gene, while the blaESBL, blaOXA-1 and blaTEM-1 genes were detected in most cases. In all clonal isolates, the blaNDM-1 gene was located on an IncA/C-type plasmid, and flanked upstream by an ISAba125 element and downstream by bleMBL. Conjugation experiments failed to produce carbapenem-resistant transconjugants, indicating a low dynamic for horizontal gene transfer. Application of enforced infection control measures led to the absence of new NDM-positive cases for periods of time during the survey. This study represents the largest clonal outbreak of NDM-producing E. cloacae complex in Europe.

Amniotic band syndrome and limb body wall complex in Europe 1980-2019.

Amniotic band syndrome (ABS) and limb body wall complex (LBWC) have an overlapping phenotype of multiple congenital anomalies and their etiology is unknown. We aimed to determine the prevalence of ABS and LBWC in Europe from 1980 to 2019 and to describe the spectrum of congenital anomalies. In addition, we investigated maternal age and multiple birth as possible risk factors for the occurrence of ABS and LBWC. We used data from the European surveillance of congenital anomalies (EUROCAT) network including data from 30 registries over 1980-2019. We included all pregnancy outcomes, including live births, stillbirths, and terminations of pregnancy for fetal anomalies. ABS and LBWC cases were extracted from the central EUROCAT database using coding information responses from the registries. In total, 866 ABS cases and 451 LBWC cases were included in this study. The mean prevalence was 0.53/10,000 births for ABS and 0.34/10,000 births for LBWC during the 40 years. Prevalence of both ABS and LBWC was lower in the 1980s and higher in the United Kingdom. Limb anomalies and neural tube defects were commonly seen in ABS, whereas in LBWC abdominal and thoracic wall defects and limb anomalies were most prevalent. Twinning was confirmed as a risk factor for both ABS and LBWC. This study includes the largest cohort of ABS and LBWC cases ever reported over a large time period using standardized EUROCAT data. Prevalence, clinical characteristics, and the phenotypic spectrum are described, and twinning is confirmed as a risk factor.

Macroscopic and Petrographic Analyses of the Mortars from the Roman villa of Noheda (Villar de Domingo García, Cuenca)

The Roman villa of Noheda, located in the municipality of Villar de Domingo García (Cuenca), is one of the most important archaeological sites in Spain and one of the most important museum complexes in Europe. In recent years, several archaeological investigations have been developed (archaeometry of building materials, natural resources, ways and roads). Furthermore, various restoration and consolidation works have been carried out on structures, walls and floors. The archaeological management team requested a characterisation of the mortars found in the coatings of the walls and floors of the complex to identify differences in its production. After checking the rooms, the state of conservation of the elements and the significance of the materials used, several mortar samples were analysed by means of macroscopic techniques before applying a petrographic analysis. The results showed an interesting variety in the distribution of aggregates, a complex microstratigraphy and a range of grain sizes in the mortars from different rooms. Magnesium, silica and aluminium from limestone were found. Crushed and powdered limestone was used as an aggregate with irregular distribution. Calcite nodules were observed as evidence that the mortar had been poorly mixed in preparation.

Non-destructive magnetic and chemical characterization of granite column shafts traded in the Mediterranean area: the case of Piazza dei Miracoli in Pisa (Italy) and Basilica of Saint-Martin d’Ainay in Lyon (France).

AbstractWe present a scheme for non-destructive provenancing of granite shafts dating from the Roman to the medieval period using a combination of visual, magnetic, and chemical determinations. Our results on two monumental medieval complexes in Europe, in Pisa and Lyon, shows both oriental provenance, most likely spolia, and shaft from the quarries within the influence zone of the Pisa Republic (Elba, Corsica and Sardinia) that possibly correspond to shafts newly obtained in the quarries, particularly for the large diameter shafts of Ainay in Lyon (from Corsica) and Piazza dei Miracoli (from Elba and Sardinia). pXRF appears to be an efficient way to discriminate Corsican from Egyptian grey coarse grained granite provenance.

Species and genotypes belonging to Echinococcus granulosussensu lato complex causing human cystic echinococcosis in Europe (2000\u20132021): a systematic review

BackgroundThis study aimed to fill a gap of knowledge by providing a quantitative measure of molecularly identified species and genotypes belonging to Echinococcus granulosussensu lato (s.l.) causing human cystic echinococcosis (CE) in Europe during the period 2000–2021. As these species and genotypes are characterized by genetic, animal host and geographical differences, studying the E. granulosuss.l. complex is epidemiologically relevant.MethodsA systematic review (SR) was conducted on the basis of both scientific and grey literature considering primary studies between 2000 and 2021 in four databases. From a total of 1643 scientific papers, 51 records were included in the SR. The main inclusion criterion for this study was the molecular confirmation of E. granulosuss.l. at the genotype/species level as a causative agent of human CE cases in selected European countries.ResultsRelevant data were obtained from 29 out of 39 eligible European countries. This SR identified 599 human molecularly confirmed echinococcal cysts: 460 (76.8%) identified as E. granulosussensu stricto (s.s.), 130 (21.7%) as E. canadensis cluster (G6/7 and G10), 7 (1.2%) as E. ortleppi (G5), and 2 as E. vogeli (0.3%). Three geographical hotspots of human CE caused by different species of the E. granulosuss.l. complex were identified: (1) E. granulosuss.s. in Southern and South-eastern Europe (European-Mediterranean and Balkan countries); (2) E. canadensis (G6/7) in Central and Eastern Europe; (3) E. ortleppi in Central and Western Europe. This SR also identified data gaps that prevented a better definition of the geographical distribution of the Echinococcus granulosuss.l. species complex in Europe: western Balkan countries, part of Central Europe, and Baltic countries.ConclusionsThese results mandate longitudinal, multi-centre, intersectoral and transdisciplinary studies which consider both molecular and clinical epidemiology in animals and humans. Such studies would be valuable for a better understanding of the transmission of the E. granulosuss.l. species complex and their potential clinical impact on humans.Graphical

A Novel Real Time PCR Method for the Detection and Quantification of Didymella pinodella in Symptomatic and Asymptomatic Plant Hosts.

Didymella pinodella is the major pathogen of the pea root rot complex in Europe. This wide host range pathogen often asymptomatically colonizes its hosts, making the control strategies challenging. We developed a real-time PCR assay for the detection and quantification of D. pinodella based on the TEF-1 alpha gene sequence alignments. The assay was tested for specificity on a 54-isolate panel representing 35 fungal species and further validated in symptomatic and asymptomatic pea and wheat roots from greenhouse tests. The assay was highly consistent across separate qPCR reactions and had a quantification/detection limit of 3.1 pg of target DNA per reaction in plant tissue. Cross-reactions were observed with DNA extracts of five Didymella species. The risk of cross contamination, however, is low as the non-targets have not been associated with pea previously and they were amplified with at least 1000-fold lower sensitivity. Greenhouse inoculation tests revealed a high correlation between the pathogen DNA quantities in pea roots and pea root rot severity and biomass reduction. The assay also detected D. pinodella in asymptomatic wheat roots, which, despite the absence of visible root rot symptoms, caused wheat biomass reduction. This study provides new insights into the complex life style of D. pinodella and can assist in better understanding the pathogen survival and spread in the environment.

Geotourism interesting locality with Remediation of the bedrock and restoration of Spiš Castle - UNESCO heritage site

Understanding the structure of the geological subsoil should be the first stage in the construction of any major building. Therefore, if the problem of rescue and restoration of various historical buildings is currently being addressed, it is necessary to study their subsoil in detail. Among the important historical buildings that have been preserved in Slovakia are numerous castles and chateaux. Nowadays, many of these buildings need to be extensively restored to prevent their gradual devastation. The issue of rehabilitation of some buildings has been addressed for several decades. The reasons for the rehabilitation of these buildings have varied. In the case of the ruins of Strečnian Castle and its subsoil, it was primarily the safety of traffic on the adjacent important road. In the case of Spiš Castle, it is a monument of world importance. It is one of the largest castle complexes in Europe. The beginnings of the construction of this complex date back to the 11th century. Its current state is due, among other factors, to the instability of its geological subsoil. For this reason, the stabilisation of the travertine body, which has been severely damaged, particularly by tectonics and karst processes, has already been addressed in the past. The solution of this problem in the past has already produced positive results, but due to exogenous processes and, hypothetically and certainly, seismicity, the bedrock may move again in the future. For this reason it is necessary to pay attention to continuous monitoring of the movement of its rock blocks. As far as the castle itself is concerned, its current state is mainly due to the fire at the end of the 18th century, followed by its rapid devastation. In view of the world importance of the castle, the restoration of the site may therefore also take other directions. One possibility is, for example, its reconstruction according to contemporary records, which would bring its final appearance even closer to its original grandeur.

Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Dark-Highlighting the Importance of Genetically Identifying Mosquito Populations in Subterranean Environments of Central Europe.

The common house mosquito, Culex pipiens s. l. is part of the morphologically hardly or non-distinguishable Culex pipiens complex. Upcoming molecular methods allowed us to identify members of mosquito populations that are characterized by differences in behavior, physiology, host and habitat preferences and thereof resulting in varying pathogen load and vector potential to deal with. In the last years, urban and surrounding periurban areas were of special interest due to the higher transmission risk of pathogens of medical and veterinary importance. Recently, surveys of underground habitats were performed to fully evaluate the spatial distribution of rare members of the Cx. pipiens complex in Europe. Subterranean environments and their contribution to mosquito-borne pathogen transmission are virtually unknown. Herein, we review the underground community structures of this species complex in Europe, add new data to Germany and provide the first reports of the Cx. pipiens complex and usually rarely found mosquito taxa in underground areas of Luxembourg. Furthermore, we report the first finding of Culiseta glaphyroptera in Luxembourg. Our results highlight the need for molecular specimen identifications to correctly and most comprehensively characterize subterranean mosquito community structures.

The changing relationship between socio-economic background and family formation in four European countries

Family formation, a process that includes union formation, fertility, and their timing and order, has become increasingly diverse and complex in Europe. We examine how the relationship between socio-economic background and family formation has changed over time in France, Italy, Romania, and Sweden, using first wave Generations and Gender Survey data. Competing Trajectories Analysis, a procedure which combines event-history analysis with sequence analysis, allows us to examine family formation as a process, capturing differences in both the timing of the start of family formation and the pathways that young adults follow. Regarding timing, socio-economic background differences in France and Sweden have remained relatively small, whereas in Italy and Romania higher parental education has become more strongly associated with postponement. Pathways tend to diverge by socio-economic background, particularly in Sweden and France. These results indicate that while family formation patterns have changed, they continue to be stratified by socio-economic background.

Pre-eruptive conditions at satellite vent eruptions at Teide-Pico Viejo complex (Tenerife, Canary Islands)

The Teide-Pico Viejo (T-PV) stratovolcanoes constitute one of the most potentially active volcanic complexes in Europe. T-PV was traditionally considered as a non-explosive system, but recent studies have pointed out the explosive character of their phonolitic magmas, including plinian and subplinian eruptions and the generation of pyroclastic density currents, as is evidenced in the volcanological record of the last 30 kyr. This explosive activity is mostly associated with satellite dome-like vents, which are characterised by presenting progressive transitions between explosive and effusive activity. In order to improve our understanding of these types of eruptions and their controlling mechanisms, we conducted a petrological and mineral characterisation of the products from the different eruptive phases of Pico Cabras dome. This permitted us to constrain the pre-eruptive conditions of the magma and to infer the potential factors that control the changes in the volcanic activity of dome-forming eruptions at T-PV and, in particular, the transition between explosive and effusive phases.Feldspar (anorthoclase and sanidine), clinopyroxene (diopside and augite), biotite, amphibole (kaersutite), magnetite, ilmenite, sodalite, and glass samples were analysed using EPMA and Micro-XRF. Our results suggest the presence of a compositionally, thermally, and volatile stratified magma chamber at 100 ± 50 MPa prior to the Pico Cabras eruption (between 9210 and 5911 years BP), which was characterised by a progressive change in the style of activity, from an efficiently fragmented magma dispersed by a sustained plume, to a poorly-fragmented, low-height, non-convective fountain (forming the fountain-fed lava dome) to a glass-bearing lava flow activity. The transition in the eruptive style was controlled by changes in temperature and amount of volatiles dissolved in the phonolitic melt (i.e., differences in magma rheology). The initial explosive phase was related to the emission of highly evolved phonolitic magma ponding at 725–825 °C while containing 3.5–5 wt% H2O and located in the upper part of the magma reservoir. The magma that fed the phonolitic lava flow formed the main body of the reservoir and was stored below the preceding melt at 880 ± 30 °C and with 2.5–3 wt% H2O dissolved. Feldspar zonation suggests that the eruption was triggered by the intrusion of hotter mafic magma at the base of the phonolitic chamber, which induced the overturn of the interior of the reservoir. However, the interaction between the internal magmas was short enough to prevent the hybridization phenomena among them. The compositions of some feldspars from the most explosive phase are equivalent to those found in the El Abrigo eruption, the last caldera-forming episode (ca. 190 ka), demonstrating that T-PV volcanic system can already produce evolved and highly explosive magmas, a factor that should be considered in future hazard assessment for Tenerife.

Bone retouchers from the Mousterian Quina site of De Nadale Cave (Berici Hills, north-eastern Italy)

Bone retouchers are present in the human toolkit throughout the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic and appear in many contexts across Europe, sometimes in association with heavily retouched stone tools. Here we present the complete assemblage of bone retouchers recovered in the Mousterian Quina site of De Nadale Cave in the north of Italy dated to the onset of MIS 4. The results show that this assemblage is consistent – both in morphological and technological features - with bone retouchers recovered in the rest of Europe. The predominance of cervid and bovid limb bones is observed, and the study of the retouch-induced stigmata reveals intense modification of the lithic industry carried out on-site. This analysis contributes to our understanding of Neanderthal cultural and economic choices in the Quina complex in Europe.

Ongoing anthropogenic eutrophication of the catchment area threatens the Doñana World Heritage Site (South-west Spain)

Eutrophication is a major cause of wetland degradation worldwide. In recent decades, reductions in nutrient inputs have led to improvements in water quality in many rivers and lakes in central and northern Europe, but long-term trends are less clear in southern Europe. We conducted the first comprehensive study of water quality in Doñana (SW Spain), one of the most important wetland complexes in Europe and the Mediterranean region. The core area of Doñana is a large shallow, seasonal marsh (UNESCO World Heritage Site—WHS) that floods during rainy, cool winter months, then dries out during the summer. The marsh is fed by three main streams whose catchments are within a Biosphere Reserve but are impacted by greenhouses (for cultivating fruit, irrigated with groundwater), poorly treated urban wastewaters and tourism. From 2013 to 2016, we monitored nutrient (Total P, Total N, PO4−3, NH4+, NO3−, NO2−) and phytoplankton chlorophyll-a (chla) concentrations in surface waters of the Doñana marsh and the three main streams. We quantified changes in greenhouse cover since 1995 using satellite images. Nutrient concentrations in streams were consistently higher than in the marsh, particularly in the Partido and Rocina streams that regularly reached concentrations equivalent to a “bad physico-chemical status” under the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD), and whose catchments suffered a fivefold expansion of greenhouses from 1995 to 2016. The Partido was the most polluted stream, and the most affected by wastewater effluents, and had particularly high concentrations of NH4+ (Geometric Mean = 0.3 mg L−1) and NO2− (GM = 0.52 mg L−1) across seasons. Patterns in chla concentrations were less consistent, but streams (GM = 6.78 µg L−1) generally had higher concentrations than the marsh (GM = 4.27 µg L−1). Nutrient concentrations in spot samples within the marsh largely depended on a combination of evaporation (as revealed by higher stable isotope δ2H values in the water column) and spatial processes (concentrations increase close to stream entry points, where conductivity is lower). Anthropogenic nutrient pollution in entry streams is a serious problem in Doñana, with extensive stretches too toxic for fish. Reinforcement of policies aimed at reducing nutrient inputs to Doñana are urgently required to meet the biodiversity conservation and environmental objectives for the WHS and WFD, respectively. Paradoxically, the marsh is currently relied upon to purify the water entering from streams.

The Forgotten Child of the Wider Corded Ware Family: Russian Fatyanovo Culture in Context

The Fatyanovo Culture, together with its eastern twin, the Balanovo Culture, forms part of the pan-European Corded Ware Complex. Within that complex, it represents its eastern expansion to the catchment of the Upper and Middle Volga River in the European part of Russia. Its immediate roots are to be found in the southern Baltic States, Belarus, and northern Ukraine (the Baltic and Middle-Dnepr Corded Ware Cultures), from where moving people spread the culture further east along the river valleys of the forested flatlands. By doing so, they introduced animal husbandry to these regions. Fatyanovo Culture is predominately recognised through its material culture imbedded in its mortuary practices. Most aspects of every-day life remain unknown. The lack of an adequate absolute chronological framework has thus far prevented the verification of its internal cultural dynamics while overall interaction proposed also on typo-stratigraphical grounds suggests a contemporaneity with other representations of the Corded Ware Complex in Europe. Fatyanovo Culture is formed by the reverse movement to the (north-)east of the Corded Ware Complex, itself established in the aftermath of the westbound spread of Yamnaya populations from the steppes. It thus represents an important link between west and east, pastoralists and last hunter-gatherers, and the 3rd and the 2nd millenniabc. Through its descendants (including Abashevo, Sintashta, and Andronovo Cultures) it becomes a key component in the development of the wider cultural landscape of Bronze Age Eurasia.

Novel Mitochondrial DNA Lineage Found among Ochlerotatus communis (De Geer, 1776) of the Nordic-Baltic Region.

The Ochlerotatus (Oc.) communis complex consist of three Northern American species as well as a common Holarctic mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) Oc. communis (De Geer, 1776). These sister species exhibit important ecological differences and are capable of transmitting various pathogens, but cannot always be differentiated by morphological traits. To investigate the Oc. communis complex in Europe, we compared three molecular markers (COI, ND5 and ITS2) from 54 Estonian mosquitoes as well as two COI marker sequences from Sweden. These sequences were subjected to phylogenetic analysis and screened for Wolbachia Hertig and Wolbach symbionts. Within and between groups, distances were calculated for each marker to better understand the relationships among individuals. Results demonstrate that a group of samples, extracted from adult female mosquitoes matching the morphology of Oc. communis, show a marked difference from the main species when comparing the mitochondrial markers COI and ND5. However, there is no variance between the same specimens when considering the nuclear ITS2. We conclude that Oc. communis encompasses two distinct mitochondrial DNA lineages in the Nordic-Baltic region. Further research is needed to investigate the origin and extent of these genetic differences.