Community Reinvestment Research Articles

Collaborative Strategies For Promoting Economic Empowerment

This article explores the role of strategic partnerships in ensuring economic empowerment, particularly within underserved communities and small businesses in the U.S. It explains the importance of collaboration among financial institutions, community organizations, and government agencies as a means to promote financial inclusion and stimulate economic development. Through the analysis of successful case studies, such as the Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) and Financial Empowerment Centers (FECs), the article identifies core components essential for building effective partnerships, including shared goals, trust, clear roles, and strong monitoring frameworks. It offers a comprehensive roadmap for developing and implementing collaborative programs that emphasize the importance of needs assessment, securing resources, and measuring impact. The article studies the indispensable nature of these partnerships in overcoming systemic barriers and driving sustainable economic empowerment. Finally, it calls for ongoing research and innovation in partnership models to adapt to evolving challenges and opportunities in the financial inclusion platform.

Abstract A047: Neighborhood disadvantage and multiple myeloma risk among Black women living in the United States

Abstract Introduction: Multiple myeloma (MM) is a rare cancer of the plasma cells. Black men and women are at a greater than 2-fold increased risk of MM as compared to other racial/ethnic groups. In 2021, Black women living in the United States (U.S.) were diagnosed with MM at a rate of 13.9 per 100,000 women, and incidence has increased by more than 30% since 2000. Factors associated with the neighborhood in which Black women live and work may be one area to consider to disentangle this racial disparity in MM incidence and reduce the burden of disease for Black women. Methods: We evaluated the association between two neighborhood-level indices and MM within the Black Women’s Health Study, a longitudinal cohort of 59,000 self- identified Black women ages 21-69 at enrollment in 1995. Participant addresses at baseline were geocoded and linked with U.S. Census Bureau and American Community Survey data. We conducted a factor analysis to a create neighborhood concentrated disadvantage (nDIS) score, which included 6 variables: percentage of individuals below the poverty line, percentage of individuals on public assistance, percentage of female headed households, percentage unemployed, percentage of individuals ≤18 years, and percentage of Black residents. A neighborhood socioeconomic status (nSES) score included median household income, median housing value, percentage of households receiving interest, dividend or net rental income, percentage of adults aged ≥25 years who completed college, percentage of employed persons aged ≥16 years in occupations classified as managerial, executive or professional, and percentage of families with children that are not headed by a single female. We used Cox proportional hazards regression to calculate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the association of quartiles of nSES and nDIS in relation to MM risk. Multivariable models were adjusted for age, body mass index, educational attainment, alcohol consumption, physical activity, and cigarette smoking. Results: During follow-up through 2021, we identified 276 incident cases of MM. Multivariable-adjusted HRs were 1.43 (95% CI: 1.00, 2.03) for women living in the highest quartile of neighborhood disadvantage relative to the lowest quartile, and 1.23 (95% CI: 0.86, 1.76) for women living in neighborhoods in the lowest quartiles of nSES compared to the highest. Conclusions: Black women in the U.S. living in neighborhoods of high concentrated disadvantage have an increased risk for MM compared to women who live in more advantaged communities, even after adjustment for individual SES as measured by educational attainment. Future studies to further tease apart specific neighborhood-level factors (e.g., walkability, chronic stress, environmental pollution, opportunities to engage in healthy behaviors) that might influence risk of MM would be beneficial. Ultimately, community reinvestment may offer an opportunity to reduce the increasing burden of MM among Black women. Citation Format: Etienne X. Holder, Julie R. Palmer, Kimberly A. Bertrand. Neighborhood disadvantage and multiple myeloma risk among Black women living in the United States [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 17th AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2024 Sep 21-24; Los Angeles, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2024;33(9 Suppl):Abstract nr A047.

Rebooting the Community Reinvestment Act

Rebooting the Community Reinvestment Act

Reexamining the 'Role of the Community Reinvestment Act in Mortgage Supply and the U.S. Housing Boom'

Concerns have lingered since the 2007 subprime crisis that government housing policies promote risky mortgage lending. The first peer-reviewed evidence of a causal effect was published by the Review of Financial Studies in a paper (Saadi, 2020) linking the crisis to changes in the Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) in 1995. A review of that paper, however, shows that it misrepresents the policy changes as having taken effect in mid-1998, 2.5 years after they were implemented. When the correct timing is used, a similar analysis yields no evidence of a relationship between CRA and riskier mortgage lending. Instead, the results are shown to reflect an unrelated confounding event, the first collapse of the U.S. subprime mortgage market following Russia’s debt default in August 1998.

A History Of The Impacts Of Discriminatory Policies On Housing And Maternal And Infant Health In An Ohio Neighborhood.

Community-level disinvestment and de facto segregation rooted in decades of discriminatory race-based policies and racism have resulted in unacceptably large infant mortality rates in racial minority neighborhoods across the US. Most community development and housing work, implemented with the goal of addressing health and social inequities, is designed to tackle current challenges in the condition of neighborhoods without a race-conscious lens assessing structural racism and discrimination. Using one historically segregated neighborhood-Linden, in Columbus, Ohio-we detail how state and local policies have affected the neighborhood and shaped neighborhood-level demographics and resources during the past 100years. We explore how structural racism- and discrimination-informed strategic community reinvestment could provide a solution and yield lasting change.

Rebooting the Community Reinvestment Act

Rebooting the Community Reinvestment Act

Unravelling the impact of the Community Reinvestment Act on SBA lending: Insights from a regression discontinuity design analysis

ABSTRACT This study investigates the influence of the Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) on Small Business Administration (SBA) lending in various U.S. urban areas. Focusing on central cities, inner-ring, and outer-ring suburbs across seven major metropolitan statistical areas, it employs a regression discontinuity design to analyze CRA’s effect on neighborhoods with median family incomes at or below 80% of the area’s median. Results show that CRA significantly increases SBA lending in inner-ring suburbs but not in central cities or outer-ring suburbs, indicating a geographically varied impact. This research underscores the spatial differences in CRA’s effectiveness, suggesting a need for more tailored strategies to improve SBA lending in diverse urban settings.

The Validity of Objections to Side-line the USA-based Community Reinvestment Legislative Model in South Africa

This article discusses the adoption and the eventual side-lining of the Community Reinvestment (Housing) Bill (CRHB) in South Africa, which is based on the United States of America’s Community Reinvestment Act of 1977 (CRA), as a measure to prevent various patterns of redlining in South Africa. It identifies continuing allegations of redlining by financial institutions. It further questions whether the Financial Sector Charter, which was voluntarily agreed upon at the National Economic Development and Labour Council (NEDLAC), and the Financial Sector Code, are effective in preventing redlining and the impact of financial exclusion of low-income households. The article discusses several reasons and objections to side-line the CRHB by comparing the context within which the CRA was applied in the USA and the South African context within which a similar legislation will be applied. This article asks whether these objections are still valid and whether the Financial Sector Charter and the Financial Sector Code are effectively enforced to prevent redlining.

Recent Innovations in Reducing Home Energy Costs and Improving Resilience for Low- and Moderate-Income Renters and Homeowners

Community Development (CD) practitioners across the western U.S. are engaging in new efforts to reduce energy costs and improve resilience for low- and moderate-income (LMI) communities and other populations that face barriers to economic participation and household financial stability. Energy costs and resilience are factors in housing stability, which impacts economic participation. New federal and state funding sources, as well as growing involvement from philanthropy and Community Reinvestment Act (CRA)-motivated investors, have prompted growth in energy cost savings and resilience (ECSR) options for LMI households. To help scale this work, CD practitioners are experimenting with partnerships—between workforce development providers and employers, mission-driven lenders and nonprofits, state government and utilities, retrofit companies and the public sector, state government and municipalities, to name a few. These partnerships have led to innovations in lending (for homeowners, renters, and landlords), technical implementation of retrofits, coordination across programs, consumer protection, workforce development, and technical assistance (TA) for CD practitioners. This brief provides descriptive findings from focus groups and interviews about ESCR-related work in the CD field and discusses takeaways for policy and practice.

Recent Innovations in Reducing Home Energy Costs and Improving Resilience for Low- and Moderate-Income Renters and Homeowners

Community Development (CD) practitioners across the western U.S. are engaging in new efforts to reduce energy costs and improve resilience for low- and moderate-income (LMI) communities and other populations that face barriers to economic participation and household financial stability. Energy costs and resilience are factors in housing stability, which impacts economic participation. New federal and state funding sources, as well as growing involvement from philanthropy and Community Reinvestment Act (CRA)-motivated investors, have prompted growth in energy cost savings and resilience (ECSR) options for LMI households. To help scale this work, CD practitioners are experimenting with partnerships—between workforce development providers and employers, mission-driven lenders and nonprofits, state government and utilities, retrofit companies and the public sector, state government and municipalities, to name a few. These partnerships have led to innovations in lending (for homeowners, renters, and landlords), technical implementation of retrofits, coordination across programs, consumer protection, workforce development, and technical assistance (TA) for CD practitioners. This brief provides descriptive findings from focus groups and interviews about ESCR-related work in the CD field and discusses takeaways for policy and practice.

New Empirical Evidence on Factors Influencing the Yield on High-Grade Municipal Bonds

We investigate the impact of federal budget deficits and other factors on the ex-post and ex-ante real yields on high-grade municipal bonds. The estimation results reveal that both yields increase with the real yield on 30-year Moody’s Aaa-rated bonds and provisions in the Community Reinvestment Act but decrease with net capital inflows, the real GDP growth rate, and the average effective federal income tax rate. Most importantly, both yields are increasing functions of the federal budget deficit. These results support limiting the size of federal budget deficits to avoid the excessive crowding out of private investment spending.

Using Public Health Detailing to Increase Access and Confidence in COVID-19 Vaccines and Reinvest in Disproportionately Impacted NYC Communities.

COVID-19 vaccination rates in New York City (NYC) began to plateau in the spring of 2021, with unacceptable inequities in vaccination rates based on race. To address racial inequities in vaccination rates and COVID-19 health outcomes, the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene adapted a preexisting provider outreach and education program for public health emergency use with the goals of community reinvestment and increasing patient confidence and access to the COVID-19 vaccines. The Vaccine Public Health Detailing (VPHD) program was delivered as part of a larger community outreach initiative and brought timely updates, materials, and access to technical assistance to primary care providers and staff in NYC neighborhoods experiencing COVID-19 health inequities. Outreach representatives also collected feedback from providers on resource needs to inform the agency's response. Sixteen outreach representatives were rapidly trained on COVID-19-related content and strategic communication techniques and launched a 3-wave campaign across targeted neighborhoods throughout NYC. The campaign ran from May 2021 to March 2022 and was conducted in coordination with other community engagement initiatives aimed at the general public to promote greater collective impact. In total, 2873 detailing sessions were conducted with 2027 unique providers at 1281 sites. Outreach representatives successfully completed visits at more than 85% of practices that were in scope and operating. Approximately 20% (285) of the sites requested a referral for technical assistance to become a COVID-19 vaccination site or enroll in the Citywide Immunization Registry. Qualitative information shared by providers offered a more in-depth understanding of vaccine-related sentiments and challenges faced by providers on the ground. VPHD is an effective method for supporting community providers, gathering feedback on resource needs and practice challenges, and increasing health systems efficacy during a public health emergency while also prioritizing racial equity and community reinvestment.

Disparities in arthroplasty utilization for rotator cuff tear arthropathy.

Rotator cuff tear arthropathy (CTA) carries a significant symptomatic burden for patients. Reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA) is an effective treatment intervention for CTA. Disparities in musculoskeletal medicine are well documented; however, there is a paucity of literature on how social determinants of health affect utilization rates. The purpose of this study is to determine how social determinants of health affect the utilization rates of RSA. A single-center retrospective review was conducted for adult patients diagnosed with CTA between 2015 and 2020. Patients were divided by those who underwent RSA and those who were offered RSA but did not undergo surgery. Each patient's zip code was used to determine the most specific median household income in the US Census Bureau database and compared to the multistate metropolitan statistical area median income. Income levels were defined by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development's (HUD's) 2022 Income Limits Documentation System and the Federal Reserve's (FED's) Community Reinvestment Act. Because of numeric restrictions, patients were grouped into racial cohorts of Black, White, and all other races. Patients of other races had significantly lower odds of continuing to surgery compared with White patients in models controlled for median household income (odds ratio [OR] 0.38, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.18-0.81, P=.01), HUD's 3 income levels (OR 0.36, 95% CI 0.18-0.74, P=.01), and FED's income levels (OR 0.37, 95% CI 0.17-0.79, P=.01). There was no significantly different odds of going on to surgery between FED income levels and median household income levels, but when compared with those with low HUD income, those below median had significantly lower odds of going on to surgery (OR 0.43, 95% CI 0.23-0.80, P=.01). Although contradictory to reported health care utilization for Black patients, our study supports reported disparities in utilization for other ethnic minorities. These findings may suggest that improvements in utilization efforts targeted Black-identifying patients but not necessarily other ethnic minorities. The findings of this study can help providers understand how social determinants of health play a role in the utilization of care for CTA and direct mitigation efforts to reduce disparities in access to adequate orthopedic care.

Rethinking Community Reinvestment

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Private Bank Public Values and Priorities Under the Community Reinvestment Act

The Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) requires banks to grant low-income communities access to credit. Federal agencies monitor CRA activity and rate banks on compliance. As an economic development tool, the CRA supports private investment of public outcomes. This paper uses qualitative content analysis to examine bank and nonprofit comments regarding proposed CRA rule changes and bank shareholder reports through the lens of the realized publicness framework, to explore how banks express public values. This study finds that banks espouse public values, but that the context of those values is not aligned with community nonprofit values.

Perspektif Kewirausahaan Sosial dalam Kelompok Usaha Nata de Coco Sejahtera Mandiri di Nagari Balai Baiak III Koto, Kabupaten Padang Pariaman

This study aims to describe the application of social entrepreneurship elements and describe the canvas business model for social entrepreneurship development in the Nata de Coco Sejahtera Mandiri business group. This research was conducted for 1 month (July-August 2022). This type of research is descriptive qualitative using the case study method. The data used are primary data and secondary data obtained through observation, in-depth interviews and documentation. For the first objective, the data was analyzed using the Miles and Huberman data analysis model and for the second objective it was analyzed descriptively qualitatively, then an assessment of the social benefits of the program was carried out using the Social Return of Investment (SRoI) method. The results of this study indicate that the elements of social entrepreneurship have been implemented by the Nata de Coco Sejahtera Mandiri business group in the form of social values, civil society, innovation and economic activity, but have not optimally provided benefits. Nine elements in the business model canvas for social entrepreneurship development have been implemented consisting of customer segmentation, value proposition and social value, channels, customer relationships, revenue streams and community reinvestment, key activities, key resources, key partners, and cost structure, but not yet optimal. Based on the SRoI assessment of the Nata de Coco Sejahtera Mandiri business group, it can be concluded that the benefits generated are 1:0.03, meaning that social entrepreneurship activities have not been able to create sustainability benefits for stakeholders and have not been able to create social business independence, because the resulting SRoI ratio is less than 1 (1). We recommend that the Nata de Coco Sejahtera Mandiri business group optimize the management of environmental aspects by managing liquid waste from the production of Nata de Coco produced, increasing the participation of local residents and increasing the scale of social business.Keywords : Social Entrepreneurship, Nata de Coco, SRoI

Groundbreaking alliance formed to bid Kansas Medicaid contract

CareSource, a national nonprofit managed care organization, announced June 7 the first strategic alliance of its kind to compete in the upcoming procurement to serve KanCare members and transform the health care experience for vulnerable Kansans, according to an organization news release. The CareSource HealthAlliance uniquely combines CareSource — a national leader in nonprofit managed care with 30+ years of experience — with three prominent and well‐respected statewide organizations with deep Kansas roots, company officials stated. Interhab, the Children's Alliance, the Association of Community Mental Health Centers of Kansas and CareSource Kansas will collaborate to offer KanCare 3.0 recipients an innovative and unique Medicaid health plan option focused on the whole person. “We know that integrating the deep expertise of leading, influential organizations into the design and governance of Medicaid programs consistently improves health equity, member experience and health outcomes while managing the cost of care,” said Erhardt Preitauer, president and CEO of CareSource. “I'm confident that this alliance will reinvigorate health care in Kansas and become a national model.” To form the CareSource HealthAlliance, CareSource has partnered exclusively with: Interhab, a Topeka‐based nonprofit organization with over 50 years to enhancing the well‐being of individuals in Kansas who live with intellectual and developmental disabil‐ities; the Children's Alliance of Kansas, which spearheads the national preparation of kin, foster and adoptive parents through its development of certified trainers and leaders in the Model Approach to Partnerships in Parenting program; and the Association of Community Mental Health Centers of Kansas Inc., which advocates for the welfare of both community mental health centers and the individuals to whom they cater. The organization achieves this through legislative representation, providing leadership and professional education, and showcasing model practices and programs. All three organizations will collectively guide the CareSource HealthAlliance model of care, access to care, operational excellence and community reinvestment, while ensuring a high level of quality, transparency and accountability.

Cannabis Policy in the 21st Century: Mandating an Equitable Future and Shedding the Racist Past

The cannabis legalization movement in the United States has experienced unprecedented success in the past decade due to a wave of grassroots reforms in states across the country. The current legalization movement began in 2012, when Colorado and Washington became the first two states to legalize the use and sale of cannabis for adults aged ≥ 21 years. Since then, the use of cannabis has been legalized in 21 states, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Washington, DC. Many of these states have explicitly framed the law change as a rejection of the War on Drugs and its harms, felt disproportionately in Black and Brown communities. However, racial inequities in cannabis arrests have increased in states that have legalized cannabis for adult use. Moreover, states working to implement social equity and community reinvestment programs have made little progress toward their goals. This commentary describes how US drug policy, racist in intention, gave way to drug policy that perpetuates racism, even when its ostensible or stated goal is equity. As the United States prepares for national legalization of cannabis, it is critical that we break away from past legislation and mandate equity in cannabis policy. Developing meaningful mandates will require us to acknowledge our history of using drug policy for the racist goals of social control and extortion, study the experience of states that are trying to implement social equity programs, listen to Black leaders and other leaders of color who have developed guidance for equity-focused cannabis policy, and commit to a new paradigm. If we are willing to do these things, we may be able to legalize cannabis in an anti-racist way that will stop causing harm and enable us to effectively implement reparative practices.

Anchor Institutions as Adaptation Allies: promises and pitfalls of joint urban/military adaptation planning in U.S. cities

U.S. cities have attempted to fill a leadership vacuum for climate action. But acting alone, cities face significant barriers to their capacity, so many seek additional resources through collaborations across sectors and levels of government. This study analyzes how cities leverage one particular kind of collaboration, urban/military adaptation planning. Case studies of urban/military collaborations in Norfolk, Virginia and San Diego, California reveal that military installations can serve as adaptation allies to surrounding communities. These collaborations are motivated by a recognition of social and infrastructural interdependence, but crucially, they are city-led, complicating expectations of exclusionary, authoritarian outcomes. Instead, they have provided pathways for increased resources for local adaptation and expanded regional cooperation. In addition, with urban/military relations shifting away from traditional defense dependency, bases serve as a form of anchor, or large, place-based institution. The military base is one of several overlooked anchors which, in addition to the traditional hospitals and universities, could be key allies. The current anchor model promotes community reinvestment in partnership with large institutions, but does not explicitly include adaptation. However, the anchor model is conceptualized to benefit the same marginalized communities disproportionately impacted by climate hazards, so this is a promising avenue for urban adaptation.

Proposed Social Drivers Of Health Bonds Offer Promising Improvements But Face Many Challenges To Implementation.

Social drivers of health (SDH) bonds have been proposed as a way of incentivizing investment in SDH interventions by Medicaid managed care organizations. The success of SDH bonds is predicated on the acceptance of shared responsibilities and resources for corporate and public-sector stakeholders. Underwritten against a Medicaid managed care organization's financial strength and promise to pay, SDH bond proceeds would support social services and investments in interventions that may mitigate social drivers that lead to poor health outcomes, which would in turn lower health care costs for low-to-moderate-income populations in communities of need. This systematic public health approach would tie together community-level benefits with the shared cost of care of participating managed care organizations. The Community Reinvestment Act model allows for innovation to meet business needs of health organizations, and cooperative competition can facilitate needed technology improvements for community-based social service organizations.