Agricultural systems in the European Union face simultaneous pressures from demographic decline, economic fragility, and biodiversity loss. The shrinking share of young farmers raises concerns about the long-term viability of rural areas, while monoculture and production intensification continue to erode crop diversity and ecosystem resilience. Although generational renewal policies aim to address demographic challenges, their potential to intersect with environmental or resilience-related dimensions remains insufficiently explored, particularly in structurally constrained agricultural contexts such as Greece. This study investigates how the EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) Young Farmers Measure, designed primarily to support generational renewal, relates to crop diversification and resilience-related characteristics among young farmers. The analysis addresses three questions: whether young farmers who intend to remain in agriculture beyond the mandatory support period exhibit different diversification trajectories; whether distinct socio-economic and agronomic profiles are associated with heterogeneous diversification behaviours; and how resilience-related attributes vary across diversification levels and across the farmer profiles identified through clustering. Farm level and socio-economic data from young farmers in Greece were used to quantify crop diversification through a standardized Crop Diversification Index (CDI). K-means clustering was applied to identify heterogeneous farmer profiles based on structural, socio-economic, and diversification characteristics. A multidimensional Young Farmers Resilience Index (YFRI) was constructed using Min–Max normalization across ten economic, social, and environmental indicators, providing a composite description of resilience-related attributes. The methodological approach is descriptive and exploratory, focusing on variation within the beneficiary population rather than on causal inference. Young farmers intending to remain in agriculture beyond the mandatory support period displayed higher and more variable CDI values than non-continuing farmers, indicating distinct diversification trajectories associated with long-term engagement. The cluster analysis revealed three structurally and behaviourally differentiated farmer profiles, each exhibiting characteristic diversification patterns shaped by farm size, production orientation, and household composition. YFRI scores also varied across clusters, reflecting the interaction of structural capacity, socio-economic conditions, and diversification profiles. These findings highlight substantial heterogeneity within the beneficiary population and illustrate how generational-renewal policies intersect with diversification and resilience-related attributes under the structural conditions of Greek agriculture. The study provides a replicable framework for examining how socio-economic context measures within the CAP relate to environmental and resilience-relevant characteristics. By demonstrating the diversity of pathways through which young farmers combine structural conditions, behavioural orientations, and crop portfolios, the findings support more integrated policy design capable of jointly addressing demographic, environmental, and structural challenges. • Generational renewal, biodiversity and social resilience challenge agricultural systems. • Young farmers with long-term engagement intentions exhibit higher diversification levels. • Young farmers' socio-economic and agronomic profiles co-shape diversification. • Generational renewal policy should be linked with environmental and resilience dimensions.

An unknown known: Knowledge, preferences, and acceptance of the Common Agricultural Policy

Honeybees are an important economic source for humans and fundamental pollinators for many crops worldwide. Still, interaction and overlap of trophic resources between honeybees and non-managed pollinators, such as wild bees, have been recently studied, and concerns about possible competition have been raised in environments where the number of hives is high. Actions that focus on supporting pollinators shall consider how to balance the presence of honeybees and wild pollinating species. In this work, we have investigated the effect of sown mixtures of entomophilous plants on wild bees and honeybees in a Mediterranean area. We demonstrated that sown plots dominated by one or a few flowering species affect the abundance of wild bees. We also found that when honeybees dominated (more than 50% of the observed specimens), plant-pollinator networks were more simplified and homogeneous than when wild species prevailed. These results show that sowing flower strips in small portions of arable surfaces, as encouraged by the European Common Agricultural Policies, or in urban and periurban areas, as a conservation practice for pollinators, requires careful consideration. In conclusion, sown nectariferous and/or polleniferous plants should develop into species-rich oligotrophic flowering areas to effectively support wild pollinators and reduce possible interspecific competition.

This paper explores the intersection of agricultural policy, land management, and wildfire risk in Ireland's upland regions, with a particular focus on the unintended consequences of Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Specifically, I investigate the shift towards extensification under recent CAP reforms, which has led to a decline in livestock numbers and subsequent undergrazing in parts of the Irish uplands. While these changes may have contributed to improvements to lands overgrazed by sheep in parts of the country, they may have also facilitated the encroachment of scrub vegetation, which can disrupt native habitats and heighten wildfire risk. I examine how CAP's Basic Income Support for Sustainability (BISS) payments may incentivise field burning to maintain grazable land, thus exacerbating fire hazards in sensitive upland ecosystems. I further consider the role of rural depopulation and an ageing farming population in diminishing active land management, complicating fire risk mitigation efforts. This paper advocates for the development of integrated policies that balance agricultural productivity with ecological and fire risk considerations, proposing more adaptive policy frameworks that address both the socio-economic and ecological dynamics of upland farming.

This article analyses budgetary expenditures on agriculture and rural development in Poland in 2004–2025, i.e., after Poland’s accession to the European Union (EU). The study examines the size, real dynamics, and structure of total agricultural budget expenditures, including both national budgetary funds and EU funds allocated through the instruments of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). The analysis assesses the importance of EU budget funds for the level and structure of public expenditures on agriculture and rural development in Poland and attempts to determine the relationship between national and EU funds. The study employed time series analysis, structural analysis, and an analysis of the interdependence of variables (i.e., correlation and multiple regression). It was found that during the 22 years of EU membership, budgetary expenditures on agriculture, agricultural markets, and rural development in Poland were strongly determined by the volume of European funds, which accounted for the sharp increase in Poland’s agricultural budget compared with the pre-accession period. Compared with 2003 levels, expenditure rose by an average of 162% in nominal terms and 129% in real terms. EU funds also acted as a stabilising factor for the size of this budget throughout the analysed period. The proportion of European funds in Poland’s agricultural budget (PAB) rose sharply in the early years of Poland’s EU membership (2004–2011), increasing from 20.1% to 48.7%. However, it remained relatively stable in subsequent years, averaging 47.8%. Nevertheless, the appreciation of the Polish zloty against the euro caused the real value of these expenditures to decline, a trend that became apparent from 2017 onwards. This resulted in the need to increase expenditures from the national budget and led to national funds assuming a greater share of the financial burden of supporting agriculture. Between 2017 and 2025, the share of EU funds in the PAB fell from 43% to 33.1% (averaging 40.3%). The structure of expenditures within the CAP evolved over time as a result of changes in CAP priorities, although farmers’ income support as well as assistance for the modernization and improvement of the competitiveness of Polish agriculture remained key objectives.

On 4 September 2024, the European Commission published the results of the Strategic Dialogue on the Future of Agriculture (European Commission, 2024). This was followed on 19 February 2025 by the Communication A Vision on Agriculture and Food (European Commission, 2025), which announced the agricultural policy guidelines of the second Von der Leyen Commission and the new Commissioner for Agriculture, Christophe Hansen. Finally, on 16 July 2025, the proposal for the Multiannual Financial Framework 2028-2034[1] and the legislative proposal for the European Agricultural Policy 2028-2034[2] were published simultaneously. There are two major changes. The first concerns the budget, in which, as announced, agricultural, cohesion and regional policies are merged and financed (together with other minor policies) with a single allocation, undergoing a significant overall cut. The second is the entrusting of National and Regional Partnership Plans to Member States with the task of ensuring coherence and joint programming between 14 different European Funds, while respecting their specificities[3]. Among these funds are the two agricultural ones: the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund (EAGF) for direct payments and market measures and the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) Considering the proposals for the seven-year period 2028-2034, this article aims to summarise the historical evolution of CAP expenditure. For further details, please refer to the recently published volume European Agricultural Policy. History and Analysis (Sotte & Brunori eds., 2025).

This study evaluates the productive efficiency in the agrifood sector of 21 rural Bulgarian districts as a proxy for territorial competitiveness. Output-oriented Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) was performed using district-level data from 2022 to 2024. The analysis incorporates five inputs related to labor, land, and capital and three economic outputs from agriculture and food processing. Results indicate substantial variation in efficiency among rural districts. Twelve districts form the efficiency frontier, with effective resource use and diverse structures; nine are inefficient due to scale or organizational/technological constraints. Bootstrap bias correction revealed standard DEA underestimates efficiency gaps. Frontier districts include large plains, mountainous regions and smaller, specialized systems, indicating diverse paths to competitiveness. A composite Territorial Competitiveness Index (TCI) showed frontier status does not guarantee efficiency, often due to underused manufacturing capital. Cluster analysis identified four performance groups needing different policy support, ranging from near-frontier territories that need knowledge transfer to deeply underperforming districts that require restructuring. No geographic clustering of efficiency was found, pointing to structural and institutional, rather than geographic, drivers. These results highlight the need for territorially tailored rural policies within the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and offer an empirical basis for diagnosing regional agrifood efficiency gaps.

The article analyses the conditions of agricultural entrepreneurship in Ukraine across three interrelated dimensions: regulatory-legal, organisational, and financial-economic. It is established that the agricultural sector retains its strategic role in the national economy, generating a substantial share of export revenues and maintaining leading positions among European grain producers, despite a considerable contraction in overall output caused by the full-scale war. The regulatory environment has undergone significant transformation aimed at harmonisation with EU requirements, encompassing the establishment of specialised payment agencies, digital producer registration systems, and legislative acts aligned with the Common Agricultural Policy, which collectively constitute the institutional foundation for the sector's long-term development. It is determined that organisational conditions are shifting from reactive survival-oriented models toward strategic management frameworks prioritising supply chain integration, multimodal logistics and cooperative resource pooling, while access to land, labour and energy resources remains critically constrained as a direct consequence of wartime destruction. It is studied that the financial landscape is characterised by growing state support and expanded bank lending alongside significant international investment, yet the reimposition of EU trade quotas has reduced European market revenues and accelerated geographic diversification toward Middle Eastern, African and Southeast Asian markets. To provide an integral quantitative assessment of entrepreneurship conditions, the authors propose the Agricultural Entrepreneurship Environment Favourability Index (AEEFI), which confirms a moderately favourable level of conditions and substantiates the need for systemic improvements across all three dimensions, with priority measures including differentiated tax incentives for small producers, multimodal logistics infrastructure development, and strengthened cooperative mechanisms for international grant resource mobilisation.

The object of this study is to present the main rules on the acquisition of agricultural land by young people in Hungarian agrarian law. It aims to highlight the importance of the younger generation in agriculture and to present examples within Hungary's land acquisition rules that support young people. Accordingly, it highlights the regulatory approach of the Hungarian legislator, which includes special rules for young people with preferences set apart from the general land acquisition rules. The analysis focuses on the basic law of Hungarian agricultural law on land transactions, which was enacted in 2013 (Land Transaction Act). Based on this legislation, the study examines in detail the relevant concepts, categories, and areas of law. In this context, the analysis of the concept of young farmers is particularly noteworthy, as it is based on the definition developed within the regulatory regime of the European Union's common agricultural policy and builds on the concept of farmers established under Hungarian agricultural law. The study aims to show that Hungarian agricultural legislators intend to promote generational change and sustainable Hungarian agriculture by introducing regulations that favour young people seeking to acquire land. Among the concepts, the study gives special attention to agricultural land, exploring its multifunctional character, and provides a detailed analysis of, for example, the institution of pre-emptive rights, which are also beneficial for young farmers. From a methodological perspective, the legal-dogmatic and comparative law methods are predominant, particularly in demonstrating the interrelations between specific legislative provisions. The analysis adapts individual sources of literature and legislation to this methodology, as well as relevant information and data. The key finding of the analysis is that the Hungarian legislator has enacted several specific provisions to support young people and to promote generational renewal in agriculture.

Investment subsidies under the Common Agricultural Policy have significantly influenced the development of agricultural holdings in Poland. This impact has been observed both in financial terms, through the introduction of new non-refundable support instruments, and in organizational terms, related to improved working conditions and the modernization of farms’ technical base. It is therefore justified to examine the role of investment subsidies with regard to specific farming types. The aim of this study was to identify relationships between the amount of investment subsidies received, the level of investment, and production output in Polish agricultural holdings by farming type in 2007-2023. The analysis revealed significant differences in the level of investment support across farming types. The most highly subsidized included mixed farms, holdings specializing in pig production, and farms focused on permanent crops. In recent years, an increase in both investment support and investment expenditure has been observed in holdings oriented toward livestock production, particularly pig farming. This trend was related to the post-2014 focus of support programmes on piglet and milk production, as well as measures aimed at combating African swine fever (ASF).

The European Union dominates global wine exports and production. The EU’s wine sector is primarily supported by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Geographical Indications systems (GIs). On an international point of view, the sector is experiencing remarkable economic repercussions due to US tariffs. In order to overcome the identified challenges, it is crucial for wineries to implement a tailored sales distribution strategy, particularly for small wineries. The distribution landscape for small wineries is characterized by limited resources, diverse channel options and rapidly changing market conditions, making the selection of an optimal mix both complex and critical for profitability and resilience. This study formulates the choice of distribution strategy as a multi criteria decision making (MCDM) problem and introduces a hybrid framework that combines the Best–Worst Method (BWM) for deriving consistent criterion weights with the novel Axial Distance based Aggregated Measurement (ADAM) technique for robust alternative ranking. Seven evaluation criteria, economic profitability, resource availability, implementation feasibility, strategic alignment, market opportunity, competitive advantage, and flexibility, are applied to five distribution strategies: direct sales; online and social media channels; local partnerships; distributor partnerships; and participation in festivals and events. Expert assessments generate the decision matrix and weight vectors, yielding a final ranking that places local partnerships highest, followed by direct sales, online channels, distributor partnerships, and festivals. The results demonstrate the value of community-based collaborations and experiential marketing, while the hybrid MCDM approach offers a transparent, adaptable tool for strategic decision-making. Limitations linked to expert subjectivity and criterion scope are discussed, and avenues for incorporating sustainability and dynamic updates are outlined.

Agriculture in Bulgaria faces increasing pressure to balance profitability with environmental sustainability under the evolving framework of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the European Green Deal. This study analyses the relationship between sustainability-oriented investment support, production cost structure, and farm profitability using farm-level data from the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN). The analysis integrates investment-related subsidies, input intensity, productivity indicators, and structural characteristics into an econometric framework to examine their associations with economic performance. Results show that environmental payments, when aligned with efficient management, enhance profitability, whereas conventional investment and rural development support display limited or delayed effects. Higher crop protection expenditure is associated with lower profitability, suggesting cost inefficiencies in chemically intensive production systems. In contrast, fertiliser expenditure shows no significant association, while energy-related spending exhibits a positive but statistically insignificant relationship, likely reflecting mechanisation and technological modernisation effects. Structural factors, particularly farm size and land productivity, remain key determinants of profitability for balancing economic and environmental goals. Overall, the findings suggest that sustainable profitability in Bulgarian agriculture is achievable but unevenly distributed, shaped by structural conditions, managerial capacity, and the design of support instruments. The study offers empirical evidence for aligning sustainable investment incentives with farm-level competitiveness and supports the transition toward integrated economic-environmental monitoring within the forthcoming Farm Sustainability Data Network (FSDN).

ABSTRACT The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has become one of the EUs most contested policy areas. But despite widely observed patterns of rural resentment and farmers’ resistance to environmental policies, few studies have examined the CAPs political consequences beyond recent farmers protests. Drawing on policy feedback theory, Bourdieu’s theory of symbolic fields, and scholarship on sociotechnical imaginaries, this paper offers an interpretive policy analysis based on interviews, participatory observation, and digital ethnography in Sweden and Italy – two contrasting contexts of EU agricultural governance. The study introduces the concept ‘symbolic stratification’ to explain patterns in farmers’ reactions to the EUs promotion of an entrepreneurial farmer ideal. It offers a typology of four different farmer identities – entrepreneurial, traditional, environmentally caring, and resentful – the relative standing of which is significantly affected by EU policies. The findings have bearing on the EUs legitimacy in rural areas and Europe’s capacity to transition to sustainable food production.

Abbas et al. assess the effects of biochar (3%) combined with compost and animal manure (0.5-1%) on soil carbon fractions, soil properties, and maize growth in lowfertility soil. Biochar combined with 1% compost significantly improved plant growth, soil organic matter, microbial biomass, and the carbon pool index. The findings highlight organic amendments as a sustainable strategy to restore degraded soils, enhance crop productivity, and support a circular economy under changing climate conditions. Reyes-Sánchez. examines soil science as an asset for interdisciplinary teaching approaches aimed at fostering values, scientific interest, and environmental responsibility in primary school children. Building on a previous methodological proposal, the study integrates knowledge construction with value formation through a playful, qualitative pedagogical strategy applied to 5th and 6th grade students. It compares children's perceptions of social, political, and environmental issues before and after the intervention, highlighting the role of science education in promoting sustainability-oriented attitudes.Altés et al. analyse salt dynamics and drainage loads in a newly established irrigation district in the Ebro basin (NE Spain) during 2021-2023, including the severe 2023 drought. Monitoring two sub-basins showed that a 31% reduction in irrigation delivery led to a 73% decrease in drainage and a 70% reduction in salt exports. The results highlight the potential of irrigation restrictions to improve water and salt management, while also revealing associated yield losses.Quintana-Esteras evaluate the effects of prescribed burning and selective shrub clearing on subalpine soils and vegetation in the Central Pyrenees. Both treatments similarly increased soil pH and reduced several physical and chemical properties, while microbial functional diversity remained stable. Mechanical clearing enhanced soil microbial activity compared to burning. Two years after intervention, shrub cover remained low in both treatments, although prescribed burning resulted in more bare soil and reduced plant diversity than selective clearing.Aguirre-Arcos et al. assess sap analysis as a rapid tool to diagnose the nutritional status of olive trees under integrated production in southern Spain. Trials across five farms showed clear seasonal nutrient fluxes in sap, influenced by climate and phenology. Comparisons among sap, leaf, and soil analyses highlighted potassium dominance in sap and climate-driven micronutrient variability. The results indicate that sap analysis complements traditional methods, supporting more precise and balanced fertilization strategies in olive orchards.Usón Murillo et al. analyse initiatives to harmonize soil analytical methods in Spain through interlaboratory proficiency tests promoted by the Spanish Society of Soil Science (SECS) and partner institutions. Results from tests in 2019 and 2021 revealed significant methodological differences among laboratories, with partial improvements in performance and persistent weaknesses, particularly in organic matter and texture analyses. The study highlights the need for regular proficiency testing to improve analytical quality and ensure reliable soil data for sustainable soil management and policy implementation.Pérez Moreira and Barral Silva in their article explore the rare but significant representation of soil in Western landscape painting. It identifies periods of naturalistic art, particularly in 17th-century Dutch painting and 19th-century European landscape schools, when artists depicted soils with unusual detail. Some works reveal recognizable soil horizons and features that can be interpreted using modern soil science. The study contextualizes these artistic representations historically and culturally, highlighting intersections between art, observation of nature, and soil knowledge.Barreiro et al. study evaluates the influence of tree species on soil properties and microbial activity in 54 forest plantations in Galicia, NW Spain. Soils were generally acidic with high organic matter and low phosphorus contents. Moisture varied by vegetation: the driest soils under eucalyptus and birch, and the wettest under shrublands. Microbial respiration was highest in walnut soils and lowest in eucalyptus, while β-glucosidase activity remained unchanged. Results highlight that forest management, particularly tree species selection, affects soil microbial function and carbon stabilization, with implications for climate-adaptive forestry planning.The special issue concludes with the study of Tierra et al. who investigate soil salinity in the rainfed landscapes of the "Saladas of Sástago-Bujaraloz" in the Central Ebro Basin, Spain. Analyses of 319 soil samples and electromagnetic sensor readings revealed highly variable and often extreme salinity, with 73% of samples very strongly saline. Vertical and horizontal variability was observed, with best electro-magnetic sensor readings correlations at 0-100 cm depth. The authors propose incorporating soil salinity as an agronomic criterion within the EU Common Agricultural Policy, recommending the exclusion of plots with ECe > 10 dS m-1, representing more than half of their study area.

ABSTRACT Within the EU and beyond, voluntary agri‐environmental and climate schemes (AES) are used to curtail externalities from agricultural production including nitrate leaching, biodiversity degradation and greenhouse gas emissions. This paper investigates and compares Danish landowners' preferences for temporary and permanent AES using a choice experiment (CE). We focus on landowners, who are the decision makers in terms of permanent land use change. Our study focuses on two land set‐aside contracts: temporary with annual payments and permanent with a lump‐sum payment. Results reveal that landowners require higher compensation if AES design implies giving up direct subsidy payments and hunting rights under both permanent and temporary set aside schemes. Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) direct payments were valued lower in the presence of the CAP agricultural activity requirement in permanent contracts compared to a situation without an activity requirement. As expected, landowners require higher compensation for longer commitments in temporary schemes and for rewetting commitments in permanent schemes. The average implied discount rate for schemes that mirror actual annual and lump‐sum permanent schemes offered to farmers in Denmark is 3.3%–3.4%, while that based on the CE is 1.9%–2.1%. Comparing implicit discount rates of hypothetical CE schemes with current Danish AES highlights a significant policy design misalignment. The implication is that current policy favours flexible annual payments, while the societal benefits from permanent schemes are arguably higher.

This article examines the potential anti-competitive implications of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) in India. The Central Sector Scheme for the Formation and Promotion of FPOs aims to enhance farmers' incomes through collective bargaining and economies of scale. While FPOs offer significant benefits, including improved market access, productivity, and income for member farmers, their structure raises concerns about market control, exclusive agreements, collusive behavior, and impacts on related markets. The legal framework governing FPOs, particularly their registration under the Companies Act 2013, poses challenges due to potential conflicts with the Competition Act 2002. International perspectives, such as the Capper-Volstead Act in the United States and the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy, offer insights into balancing collective bargaining with fair competition. The article suggests a need for legislative intervention and a nuanced regulatory approach to ensure that FPOs' operations do not undermine competition while achieving economic objectives for farmers.

Assessing the potential of CAP 2023 Agri-environmental schemes for Mediterranean agroforestry livestock systems: A Delphi approach.

ABSTRACT Finding equilibrium between profitability and environmental impacts poses a fundamental challenge in cropping systems management. Identifying trade‐offs requires robust tools to reconcile diverse and frequently conflicting objectives, especially in low data availability scenarios. This study presents a novel methodological framework combining the outputs of a process‐based crop model with a fuzzy‐expert trade‐off analysis system in order to perform a structured comparison of alternative cropping systems. Model outputs on soil organic carbon, nitrous oxide emissions, nitrate leaching, and economic return expressed as Net Present Value were aggregated using fuzzy logic to inform a composite index (Σ i ) ranking trade‐off performance on a scale from 0 (worst) to 1 (best). The framework was applied in a case study in Finland, evaluating nine cropping systems under current and future climate conditions. The systems included both crop‐based (annual cereals and oilseeds) and livestock‐based (with temporary grass) rotations, managed conventionally or organically, and varying in fertilization strategy, residue management, and tillage depth. The analysis was applied using a balanced weighting scheme and three alternative schemes reflecting the priorities of distinct stakeholder categories (young farmers, an agrochemical company, and a Common Agricultural Policy paying agency), allowing assessment of how changes in analytical context affect the resulting index. Under current climate conditions, the conventional livestock‐based system with mixed fertilization and residue retention performed best (Σ i = 0.69) while the conventional crop‐based system relying exclusively on mineral fertilization and residue removal underperformed (Σ i = 0.30). This latter system experienced the sharpest Σ i decline under future climate conditions (Σ i = 0.10), while organic livestock‐based systems exhibited stable outcomes (Σ i ~ 0.50). When evaluation criteria were adjusted to reflect stakeholder priorities, the framework consistently captured shifts in system rankings. This application illustrates the capacity of the framework to differentiate contrasting systems under harmonized assumptions, supporting its potential transferability particularly where long‐term site‐specific empirical datasets are limited.

Following Romania’s regime change in 1989 and its accession to the European Union (EU) in 2007, the country experienced substantial land-use and land cover (LULC) changes driven by political, economic, and demographic processes. Early post-socialist property restitution led to land fragmentation, agricultural abandonment, and the expansion of pastures and semi-natural vegetation, while rural areas became dominated by small, semi-subsistence farms. After EU accession, the implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), combined with foreign direct investment and market consolidation, reshaped agricultural practices and intensified urbanization, particularly in suburban municipalities, with growth following radial and linear patterns along major transportation corridors. This study analyses LULC dynamics in the Bucharest-Ilfov Development Region across three distinct phases—post-communist transition (1993–2000), EU pre-accession (2000–2015), and post-accession (2015–2022)—combining regional- and municipality-level analyses and using Landsat imagery, GIS, and landscape metrics. Four LULC maps (1993, 2000, 2015, and 2022) were produced with a Random Forest classifier, achieving macro F1-scores above 0.86. Population data from the National Institute of Statistics suggest contrasting patterns between urban expansion and demographic trends, with Bucharest showing population decline despite modest urban growth, and Ilfov County exhibiting parallel increases in population and urbanized areas. Results highlight rapid urban sprawl, sustained agricultural decline, and increasing landscape fragmentation. Discrepancies with earlier studies partly reflect temporal effects related to post-socialist industrial restructuring and differences in data sources and spatial resolution. These findings highlight the need for integrated urban planning strategies to balance development pressures with the preservation of agricultural land and ecological resources.

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is a key lever to support the transition towards sustainable agricultural production in Europe. However, successive reforms have been incremental and modest with regard to environmental objectives. This contribution presents an assessment of the choices made by Member States in their CAP Strategic Plans (CSPs), directing the EUR 307 billion in funding to support agriculture and rural areas for the period 2023–2027. The focus is on the different funding instruments supporting the restoration of freshwater ecosystems, in particular addressing the impact of drainage, restoring wetland and floodplain connectivity, and increasing landscape-scale water retention. A detailed mapping of farm practices supported by CAP funding – i.e. conditionality, eco-schemes, rural development (Environment and Climate measures), and investments – is presented. Results show that interventions to reduce the impact of drainage, restore wetland and floodplain connectivity, and increase landscape-scale water retention remain limited in scope. Illustrative examples of good practice are highlighted, along with recommendations for improved implementation of the CAP in the current programming period and the next round of reform. CAP 2023–2027 offers opportunities for wetland and freshwater ecosystem restoration. Member State choices show limited ambition and do not fully exploit the potential of the CAP to support restoration efforts. Good practices where the CAP supports wetland and freshwater ecosystem restoration are identified. Better metrics and performance-based incentives are needed to improve outcomes.