Commercial Space Activities Research Articles

Middle spacepowers’ integration with the global supply chain for the space industry: Taiwan and Thailand

Abstract Space as a domain of economic and security competition between great powers has risen to become an arena of active statecraft for middle powers in the twenty-first century. It has set a high-stake stage for not only continuing struggles for catch-up industrialization of late developers but also offering opportunities to capture commercial gains of technological breakthroughs and globalization of markets. We examine these challenges for Taiwan and Thailand, surveying major trends in the emerging space industry and exploring four analytical perspectives on how government-business relations shape adaptive national industrial policies in high-technology sectors with proliferating end-users. We argue that the Asian developmental state model is evolving in response to specific challenges of a global supply chain for commercial space activities dominated by leading space firms and government regulatory actions in the United States. Significant differences in Taiwan’s and Thailand’s space and industrial policy approaches will likely create divergent technological trajectories and reinforce current constraints on improving national security. The longer-term prospect for middle spacepowers remains contingent on the space race between the United States and the People’s Republic of China.

SMM Management of the Restaurant Business Entity

Topicality. Nowadays, the development of the restaurant business is concentrated in the digital environment plane, in which the positioning and promoting the brand form predicates of the consumer’s behaviour and the owner’s (founder’s) reputation, and the brand as a whole. Achieving this goal is facilitated by social media marketing (hereinafter SMM), as one of the leading areas of marketing management. Since social networks are the leading channels for searching information and communication between business entities and product consumers, monitoring the effectiveness of using their functionality in brand promotion becomes an urgent tactical and strategic task. Evaluation of marketing management and supply processes, analysis of key efficiency indicators (KEI) and metrics give an understanding to the restaurant founders and managers at which stage of the life cycle the business and the product itself ground, and which marketing strategies are appropriate. Therefore, their elaboration and facilitation of the methodology of their practical use is an important task in achieving business goals with the help of social networks. The aim of the article is to ground SMM management as a system approach for successful promotion of the entity of the restaurant business and its product. Research methods are based on the hypothesis about the effectiveness of positioning business establishment in social networks, which makes it possible to reach and attract a larger target audience, as well as increase sales. Interpreted for this research, the scientific topic determined using general economic, analytical and statistical methods, which allowed to define theoretical approaches and ground a hypothetical research tool, to form an appropriate marketing management system of the restaurant business entity. Results. The definition of “SMM management” was worked out, as well as its main goals, initiatives and functions were identified. The prerequisites for the development of restaurant brands in social networks were evaluated in dynamics. A model of SMM promotion of a restaurant brand was formed, which is a checklist for creating a marketing management system in social networks. Disadvantages and advantages of commercial activities in the social media space which provide an adequate assessment of possible risks or opportunities for development have been characterised. Specific steps to forming the SMM management system and evaluating individual agendas were studied. Directions for the development of the SMM management system based on the usage of a certain strategy, formed on ambitions of business founders and goals of the restaurant management, were offered. Prospects for further research are a thorough study of the methodology and the approbation of SMM management effectometry tools, which can be supplemented with practical insights from restaurant business entities. Conclusions and discussion. The conducted research demonstrated the relevance of SMM management, as it allows to study and scientifically substantiate the areas of activity in the digital space, which is a necessary condition for maintaining the consumer’s loyalty and preventing reputational losses for restaurant business entities. The sources used in the study confirm the importance of promoting the restaurant brand and its product in social networks, which is an element of the marketing management system of the business entity.

SpaceX's Network Effects and Innovation Strategy Analysis

The core competitiveness of an enterprise refers to the unique capabilities and resources of an enterprise that stand out in the market and surpass its competitors. This competitiveness is a key factor for the long-term survival and development of enterprises. Business leaders need to carefully analyze and develop the company's core competencies to ensure that the company has a lasting competitive advantage in the market. This paper deeply discusses the core competitiveness of Space X, including product innovation, competitors and differentiated competition, business space, innovation strategy, network effect, and positive feedback loop. The SWOT analysis of SpaceX reveals its strengths in brand reach and technological innovation but also highlights some challenges, such as the lack of products for everyday users. The company's innovative strategies, including reusable rocket launches and Starlink satellite networks, make it a leader in the private space industry. SpaceX The vision for the future transcends commercial space activities to explore and colonize multiple planets, demonstrating its commitment to a sustainable space civilization.

Space taxonomy: Need for a progressive tax regime

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky famously stated that while the Earth serves as the birthplace of humanity, it is not a place where mankind can indefinitely remain. Perhaps during that period, the prospect of exploring the mysteries of outer space appeared to be an unattainable aspiration. However, in the present day, there are no longer any limitations, not even the sky, since human ingenuity has facilitated access to outer space for humanity. This access is not just for the purposes of research and exploration but also for economic endeavours. Until now, the commercial utilisation of outer space has advanced at a very sluggish rate. However, firms including SpaceX, Orion Span, Virgin Galactic, and Blue Origin have achieved significant advancements in the growth of the space industry. The revenue generated by various space-related endeavours has experienced a significant 73% increase over the last ten years. The global space economy, estimated to be valued at USD one trillion in the coming years, is primarily driven by commercial activities. This presents a formidable challenge to the existing national and international taxation systems. Similar to the open seas, space is also considered res communis omnium, meaning it belongs to the entire community, and presents comparable taxing challenges with potentially uncertain solutions. The three fundamental elements of every taxation regulation, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development or the United Nations Model Double Taxation Convention, are the taxpayer's place of residence, the origin of their income, and the methods by which they generate their money. The current tax system does not have the necessary concepts and provisions to adapt to the rapid advancements in commercial space technology. This paper examines the legal issues surrounding commercial activities conducted in space, including the nature and handling of the income generated in various legal systems. It also addresses concerns such as tax avoidance and excessive taxation, emphasising the necessity for a globally coordinated approach to effectively tax commercial activities in space.

Between Sea and Sky: Understanding Liability for Private and Commercial Space Operations

The legal framework for commercial space activities has been an emerging issue in recent decades. Understanding and addressing liability in space activities is crucial for the sustainable and responsible development of the commercial space industry, analogous to laying the foundation for a sturdy structure that can withstand the challenges of the ever-evolving space frontier. This article explores the concept of liability for private and commercial space launches and its importance in ensuring the safe and responsible operation of activities in space. Examining liability in lex maritima and commercial space law involves drawing parallels between the regulations governing both domains and uncovering potential opportunities for learning from existing legal frameworks. The analysis considers liability in various maritime zones, such as the territorial sea, high sea, and deep-sea bed, and draws comparisons to liability in the territory, space, and celestial body. It discusses the challenges and implications of addressing liability in space activities, including the allocation of liability, the protection of public safety, and the preservation of space as a shared resource.

Implikasi Hukum Terhadap Peningkatan Sampah Ruang Angkasa Akibat Aktivitas Komersialisasi Ruang Angkasa

This research aims to analyze the legal implications of the increase in space debris generated through space commercialization activities. This research uses a normative legal method using a qualitative approach to determine the application of law in commercial activities carried out in space. The results of this study, namely: (1) the increase in space junk cases caused by commercial activities in space is increasing until 2022 due to various satellites being launched and causing junk to scatter freely in space. The rules of the Outer Space Treaty 1967 are still unable to guarantee legal certainty so that all parties carrying out commercial activities in space obey them; (2) the calculation of damage caused by commercial activities in space will result in liability that has been regulated in the Space Liability Convention 1972 that there are two legal principles governing the responsibility for compensation carried out by all parties in space, both state and private parties.

An island in the sun material. Legacies of colonialism in sardinia between the nation-building process and (a lack of) decolonization

As European colonialism has had an impact both on the territories and populations that have undergone European occupation, and on Europe itself, decolonization must also be investigated by taking into consideration the so-called “motherland” as well, to verify whether, and in what way, Europeans have come to terms with that past. Studying the presences and the permanencies in the public space which shows signs of the colonial past offers an essential perspective from which to answer these questions. At the same time, conducting this analysis on a local scale allows us to investigate the meanings of these presences and legacies in depth. From this perspective, the essay investigates the case of Sardinia, an Italian island in the Mediterranean that occupies a peripheral position in the Italian state. It aims to understand, on the one hand, the role colonialism played in the island’s “nationalization”. On the other hand, the island has faced its colonial past from the fall of the Italian empire until now. The essay first retraces the position of Sardinia and Sardinians within the colonial project, then analyses the presence of different types of colonial signs (toponymy, commemorative plaques, commercial activities) in the public space. It identifies them not just in space but also in time, historicizing their presence and, therefore, their meaning. The study demonstrates that the island was crossed by an intense process of “colonization”, which ran parallel to the process of urbanization and modernization; at the same time, it has not only not questioned those signs, but in several cases they were presented again, demonstrating the absence not only of material decolonization but also, above all, of cultural decolonization.

Public Opinion of Commercial Space Exploration

ABSTRACT Utilizing data from a representative survey of Americans, this paper aims to understand who supports commercial space exploration. The findings show parallels to trends previously identified in who supports space exploration. In addition to confirming that knowledge about commercial space is relatively low to non-existent, the data also indicate that respondents do not believe that human spaceflight should be carried out entirely by private actors. Though typical demographic markers associated with support for space exploration, including gender, age, education, and income are identified here as being important, the data indicate that knowledge of commercial space activities is a key mediator for their influence, thereby identifying a key causal mechanism involved in the formation of individual opinion on commercial space that may also be applicable to other elements of public opinion-space studies.

INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATIVE EXPERIENCE IN THE SPHERE OF REGULATION OF AIRSPACE AND OUTER SPACE LEGAL REGIME

The article considers the experience of regulating the established legal regime for the use of airspace and outer space from the point of view international law norms and legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan and other countries. During the research of this issue, legal norms were analyzed, as well as the features of the legislations development in these fields. The boundary of space is given increasing importance because air law and space law have differences in their rules. These branches of international law are based on different principles and have different legal regimes. And these differences must be taken into account, in connection with new developments in space operations, including space tourism (flights), and the increasingly ambitious and far-reaching programs of some space powers. The relevance of the subject matter is determined by the risen interest of the majority of states in the world to the use of these areas for commercial purposes and more recently for military purposes. These processes have created new legal challenges to space law. This study reveals the need to adopt specific legal provisions in the field of exploration and use of outer space. As a result of the rapid pace of technological development, as well as taking into consideration the trends in developing commercial space activities, it became necessary to adopt international documents, specific legal provisions regarding the control of the activities of states in this sphere. The study also concludes, that the current airspace concept, needs to be updated in terms of its flexibility and adaptability to current changes.

Implementing safety zones for lunar activities under the Artemis Accords

Improving technology could enable new commercial and scientific activities in outer space, including crewed stations, space mining, and advanced planetary science in locations like the Moon or asteroids. To facilitate novel space exploration activities, the United States led the development of a new multilateral set of principles, the Artemis Accords. The Accords and other soft law propose the ability to establish “safety zones” surrounding space operations of participant states and mission-authorized nationals. Safety zones are controversial because their implementation could violate the non-appropriation and other principles of the Outer Space Treaty. Thus, successfully implementing safety zones is essential to the Artemis Accords’ framework to unlock space resources and encourage other novel activities. This study reviews the history and principles behind safety zones in outer space. It identifies the requirements such zones place on operators and the obligations they can create for other states and actors. In evaluating three hypothetical case studies on the Moon, it proposes an algorithm for the establishment, alteration, management, and termination of a safety zone. Finally, it recommends pathways to develop and implement safety zones in an iterative manner consistent with international law and best practices for industry, including conceiving of safety zones as “safety conditions.”

INVESTMENT IN THE SPACE INDUSTRY: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF UKRAINE AND THE EU

The identity and institutional capabilities of the European Union (EU) have changed over the years. As a global player in international politics, the EU has recognized the need to develop a comprehensive space policy perspective. This perspective is shaped by changes in the dynamics of the space ecosystem, the "New Space", and this phenomenon consists of new business models, new technologies, new markets, new value chains and new actors. New space actors (private investors) have fundamentally changed the dynamics of space activities. The subject of the research is the peculiarities of the influence of investment processes of the EU and Ukraine on the development of space industries. The methodological basis consisted of general scientific and special methods of knowledge, based on a systematic approach to the consideration of economic processes. The article aims to examine investment in the context of space management in the EU and Ukraine, and to examine in detail the trends in such funding of space companies. In order to better understand the European space system. The article concludes that, recognizing the indisputable importance of space applications and safety of space systems, the EU attaches great importance to taking into account the trend of "New Space" in its governance structure and stimulating changes in this sector. Unfortunately, Ukraine lags far behind in this respect. In the EU, in the initial stages of space research and use, space programs are financed from the general budget, and as individual activities reach a level of profitability, their public funding is reduced. Therefore, the sphere of commercial space activities and the share of private investments in their total financing are rapidly growing. The reduction of state expenditures is compensated by investments of private business in commercial projects. Thus, the article emphasizes the particular importance of private investments in the development of the Ukrainian space industry and points to the need to develop the commercialization of space activities, especially given the potential in the absence of budget financing. It is impossible to compare the sufficiently powerful and effective investment system of the EU and the lack of even state financing of the space industry in Ukraine. Against the backdrop of hostilities in Ukraine, there is a significant need to reconsider investments in this area on the basis of public-private and international partnerships. Conclusion. The main tasks for Ukraine are revision and change of the state policy, right accents on investments into the space industry, qualitative overcoming of bureaucratic obstacles, approval of a new Strategy of Space Industry Development. As an example, one could use the experience of the EU and refer to its previous experience in this sphere to have an opportunity to stay among the world space powers.

Article: Recycling the Outer Space Treaties: Analysing the Potential for On-Orbit Servicing Agreements

On-orbit servicing (OOS) has continued to gain popularity as a possible solution to improving the cost-effectiveness and sustainability of space activities. However, the novel notion of this space activity, coupled with its several implications, raises questions and concerns as to its status within the international legal framework. The Corpus Juris Spatialis addresses states and their outer space activity, but on-orbit services will likely be carried out by private entities. In this regard, bilateral contracts between companies offering on-orbit services will need to consider obligations and rights under the current international legal framework. In so doing, the spirit of the provisions of the space treaties can be easily implemented into agreements between private parties. on-orbit servicing, contracts, commercial space activities, outer space

Article: Space Dispute Settlement in Asia in the Context of the Belt & Road Initiative: An Appraisal from China’s Perspective

Conducting a space cooperation program in the context of the Belt & Road (B&R) initiative provides China opportunities to further extend the scale of space cooperation in Asia and break through the current predicament of the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO). A more comprehensive mechanism to address the potential state-to-state and commercial space disputes is essential. To efficiently avoid and resolve disputes among the Member States, APSCO needs to improve the ‘fair return’ principle and the dispute settlement arrangement contained in its Convention. As to conflicts between APSCO and the non-Member States, dispute settlement clauses are obliged to be reached between APSCO and China. For commercial disputes, China should establish a specialized arbitration branch as a constituent of the B&R comprehensive dispute settlement mechanism. Disputes arising in space infrastructure investments need to be treated separately. For this reason, a special branch for settling investor-state disputes should be created under the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) as advocated in this article. B&R Initiative, B&R-SIC, Space Disputes in Asia, Asian Space Cooperation, APSCO, Commercial Space Activities

Intellectual Property Protection in Outer Space: Conflict in Theory and Application in Practice

The granting of intellectual property protection to space activities plays a significant role in promoting the sustainable development of space commercialization. However, the international intellectual property treaties have not explicitly stated in their provisions the issue of intellectual property protection in outer space, neither the provisions of the five outer space treaties explicitly address the legal issue. Such legal uncertainty may discourage States and non-governmental entities from actively participating in commercial space activities. One concerned rationale resulting in such legal status is the territoriality conflict in theory between the legal regimes of outer space and intellectual property. This article purports to illustrate territoriality conflict in theory between legal regimes of outer space and intellectual property. It then moves to argue that the conflict is proved to be a problem that exists purely in legal theory rather than legal practice because the legal value of Article VIII of the Outer Space Treaty elaborately reconciled the territoriality conflict in theory and offers a self-contained mechanism that would allow guaranteed levels of intellectual property protection in outer space. This mechanism employs space objects as a connecting factor to link space activities with the existing laws of the State of registry to realize the purpose of intellectual property protection in outer space.

Role of microfluidics in accelerating new space missions.

Numerous revolutionary space missions have been initiated and planned for the following decades, including plans for novel spacecraft, exploration of the deep universe, and long duration manned space trips. Compared with space missions conducted over the past 50 years, current missions have features of spacecraft miniaturization, a faster task cycle, farther destinations, braver goals, and higher levels of precision. Tasks are becoming technically more complex and challenging, but also more accessible via commercial space activities. Remarkably, microfluidics has proven impactful in newly conceived space missions. In this review, we focus on recent advances in space microfluidic technologies and their impact on the state-of-the-art space missions. We discuss how micro-sized fluid and microfluidic instruments behave in space conditions, based on hydrodynamic theories. We draw on analyses outlining the reasons why microfluidic components and operations have become crucial in recent missions by categorically investigating a series of successful space missions integrated with microfluidic technologies. We present a comprehensive technical analysis on the recently developed in-space microfluidic applications such as the lab-on-a-CubeSat, healthcare for manned space missions, evaluation and reconstruction of the environment on celestial bodies, in-space manufacturing of microfluidic devices, and development of fluid-based micro-thrusters. The discussions in this review provide insights on microfluidic technologies that hold considerable promise for the upcoming space missions, and also outline how in-space conditions present a new perspective to the microfluidics field.

Commercial Human Spaceflights: Legal Challenges for International Regulation

Commercial Human Spaceflight – a new addition to the commercial activities in outer space – is attracting the ultra-rich section of the society. It has enormous potential to accelerate the economic aspect of commercial spaceflight since with the development of reusable technologies it is expected to become cheaper. At the same time, it poses a severe threat in various ways to the status quo of the existing regime of space regulation. Taking humans to outer space as a passenger affects the current social, psychological, political, and legal setup. The paper highlights the legal issues that are arising from commercial human spaceflights. Therefore, in section one, the article discusses applicable international law to this emerging activities. Part two details specifically on the international space law that is relevant to regulate these activities. After analyzing the existing international law on space activities in sections one and two, which are essential for the commercial human spaceflights, part three identifies several legal challenges that are not sufficiently addressed by the existing laws. Section four examines the role played by the regulatory organization to develop the space law, and the role of the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) has been discussed in detail. As the ICAO holds good experience in handling air transportation, many believe that the ICAO is naturally well placed to regulate commercial space transportation. This aspect has been elaborated in detail in this part. In the fifth, i.e. the last section, the authors conclude by arguing to develop a new international convention to regulate it.

Behavioural Aspects of Office Space Structures in the City: The Case of Warsaw’s Business Districts

Agglomeration and urbanisation externalities accelerate the concentration of commercial activities in the urban space and the creation of business districts. As a result, besides the usual central business district (CBD), large cities also have more recent, peripheral, and specialised secondary business districts (SBDs). There is little substantial research on the formation of SBDs in rapidly globalising, semi-peripheral locations, especially in post-socialist metropolises of Central and Eastern Europe. This includes Warsaw, Poland, which is being transformed into an emerging global metropolis. The article aims to determine the differences between the CBD and the SBD in Warsaw in terms of their attractiveness to companies and employees and the spatial behaviours of employees, especially in terms of transport and shopping. The research hypotheses indicate the differences between the two districts in terms of the type of agglomeration economies, transport accessibility, and components of the competitive advantage, as well as the characteristics of companies in those districts. The data are from a survey conducted in 2017–2018 among companies and their employees in both business districts, and they are analysed using basic statistical techniques and discriminatory analysis. The results confirmed there are significant differences between the two Warsaw business areas, mainly in terms of their transport accessibility and urbanisation externalities. In terms of transport, there is a greater role for public transport and rail in the CBD and for motorway and airport proximity in the SBD. Urbanisation externalities are significantly diminished by the traffic congestion in the SBD. The study also revealed that the development of commercial areas in Warsaw—a post-socialist city with a neoliberal model of spatial planning—follows only in some aspects the spatial patterns of business areas in other Western European metropolises.

Earth-Based Research Analogs to Investigate Space-Based Health Risks.

During spaceflight, astronauts are exposed to a variety of unique hazards, including altered gravity fields, long periods of isolation and confinement, living in a closed environment at increasing distances from Earth, and exposure to higher levels of hazardous ionizing radiation. Preserving human health and performance in the face of these relentless hazards becomes progressively more difficult as missions increase in length and extend beyond low Earth orbit. Finding solutions is a significant challenge that is further complicated by logistical issues associated with studying these unique hazards. Although research studies using space-based platforms are the gold standard, these are not without limitations. Factors such as the small sample size of the available astronaut crew, high expense, and time constraints all add to the logistical challenge. To overcome these limitations, a wide variety of Earth-based analogs, from polar research outposts to an undersea laboratory, are available to augment space-based studies. Each analog simulates unique physiological and behavioral effects associated with spaceflight and, therefore, for any given study, the choice of an appropriate platform is closely linked to the phenomena under investigation as well as the characteristics of the analog. There are pros and cons to each type of analog and each actual facility, but overall they provide a reasonable means to overcome the barriers associated with conducting experimental research in space. Analogs, by definition, will never be perfect, but they are a useful component of an integrated effort to understand the human risks of living and working in space. They are a necessary resource for pushing the frontier of human spaceflight, both for astronauts and for commercial space activities. In this review, we describe the use of analogs here on Earth to replicate specific aspects of the spaceflight environment and highlight how analog studies support future human endeavors in space.

Situating real estate law for the new outer-space economy

PurposeWith current commercial space activities accelerating, the purpose of this paper is to contexualise enlivening the discipline of real estate law for outer space.Design/methodology/approachDrawing on essential topics in real estate law, contracts and insurance, this paper discusses these themes in their terrestrial and extra-terrestrial contexts.FindingsReal estate law for the outer space environment carries many similarities to real estate law but also significant differences. At this early stage in human space exploration and travel, there is a need to deal more with goods/chattels (property assets); however, this will change as land – the Moon, asteroids, planets – are made available for mining and other activities. Given outer space activities carry high risk for spacecraft and humans, there are reciprocal lessons for real estate law and practice.Practical implicationsReal estate law for outer space is an area already in existence. However, as access to space develops further, particularly with inevitable human presence on the Moon and exploration to Mars, real estate law will also grow in importance and sophistication. Real estate law for outer space relies on contract and property law. These are levers for commercial activities, and a further array of complex law and governance – the Outer Space Treaties, international and national law, international custom, guidelines, codes and standards. Real estate law for space will require an interdisciplinary and global approach in an era where human needs are already reliant on goods and services derived from space, as well as in the quest for exploration beyond the earth and the moon itself.Originality/valueThe time is ripe for space law to be taken into nuanced areas, with real estate law being an important step. Entrenched into the combined real estate and outer space disciplinary context must be consideration of the environment (earth and beyond), sustainability, heritage protection issues, etc., as well as ensuring outer space has equitable opportunities for all nations and citizens.

LEGAL EXPERIENCE OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA IN THE ISSUE OF SPACE COMMERCIALIZATION

What is space now? What benefits can it bring to humanity and who is most interested in its development? Today, the history of the development of world cosmonautics shows that States at the dawn of space exploration pursued primarily a scientific and research goal for the implementation of their military and strategic tasks. The main feature of modern space activity is its active commercialization. Currently, commercial activities in outer space involve not only States, State institutions and international governmental organizations, but also private enterprises, as well as non-governmental organizations. Now space is a huge space for profit and its new participant is the private sector. It was private companies that began to invest huge amounts of money in the space sector. Today, the United States of America (USA) is a confident leader in the number of companies involved in space exploration. The comfortable development of the space business in the US is the result of a systematic, purposeful policy of the US in space exploration and profit from the work carried out, as well as the result of the legislative work of the state. Given the above, the practice and experience of the United States in the issue of space commercialization is of not only scientific, but also practical interest. The article is devoted to the international legal experience of the US in the issue of space commercialization. The authors analyze the main regulatory legal documents of the United States adopted since the beginning of space exploration, which contributed to the process of commercialization of space and space technologies, thereby contributing to the development of the state’s economy as a whole. Key words: space, space law, private space, US space.