Flexible Electrodes: Catalyzing Commercial Revolution of Brain–Computer Interfaces

This paper is not intended as a review, but rather as a set of reflections stimulated by Lorenzo Tabarrini’s volume Estate Management around Florence and Lucca 1000-1250. In particular, it aims to highlight some new methodological and interpretative achievements that emerge from the book, and to suggest some possible research avenues for the future. Among the questions on which there is still room for further investigation is that of the relationship between the “great transformation” in the countryside and the “commercial revolution” that the city of Lucca experienced in exactly the same decades.

ABSTRACT During the commercial revolution of the Middle Ages, the monetisation of economy gave rise to a series of cultural, legal and social challenges to the commonly accepted Aristotelian background. In this dynamic context, new forms of trade and contracts emerged, affecting not only commercial doctrines but also financial theories. In this framework, Franciscan economic speculation played a major role by analysing social realities with an entirely original pragmatism. Through his monetary reflection, Alexander Bonini not only gave a surprising explanation of the ‘forms of money’ but also praised the activity of the money-changers, considering their service (and related costs) fundamental to the realisation of a common benefit. His thought-provoking synthesis introduced many themes of the modern monetary doctrines. The article contains the first English translation of some crucial passages of the Bonini’s treatise On Usury (De Usuris).

Reconsidering the Commercial Revolution

Convenience stores in their current, most globally popular form were born in the US, reinvented in Japan, and re-exported to Asia and the world. No company better illustrates this transnational trajectory than 7-Eleven. This paper turns to the humble, often-overlooked convenience store as a crucial site for thinking critically, historically, and globally about the discourse of Internet revolutions. In Japanese language business literature and popular descriptions, 7-Eleven Japan’s innovative use of networked computing and logistics from the 1980s onwards led (among other factors) to its immense national and then international success. In this paper I will draw on my archival research into the convenience store in Japan to argue for that this is a key site from which to rethink histories of networked computing and the Internet “revolution” in a non-Western context – furthering the project of “de-Westernizing” or de-colonizing Internet studies. Building on existing research on Internet histories in East Asia, this paper turns to the convenience store industry and 7-Eleven Japan in particular to tell a different story of the Internet itself. Many contemporaneous accounts of 7-Eleven’s practices in the 1980s and 1990s treat its turn to information-gathering, networked computing, logistics, and point of service ordering systems as revolutionary developments. As such the convenience store offers an alternative account of commercial revolutions and networked computing. It also offers a different view of contemporary discourses of “convenience” by retailers such as Amazon, an infrastructural or logistical view of convenience provision, and a new way of narrating Internet history.

The digital commercial revolution: U.S. business sales and the entrepreneurial exploitation of information and communications technology

Abstract This paper investigates the main features of the Genoese insurance market between 1564 and 1572, thanks to the analysis of an unpublished tax register that preserves all insurance policies drafted in Genoa in that period. Marine insurance, intended as an archetypical risk-shifting technique, is probably the oldest financial instrument intended solely to protect against the economic consequences of commercial losses. Conventional premium insurance was developed as a tool to transfer risk during the commercial revolution of the late middle ages. This development was first led by Italian cities, among whom Genoa played a key role. However, Genoese operators involved in the insurance sectors, which belonged almost exclusively to the patrician families ruling the republic, acted as a mutual “risk-community” in a semi-closed market: a sort of “syndicate”. They shared among them the risks of maritime routes calling at the port of Genoa. Insurance was a zero-sum game, with low losses and gains that did not allow a true single-sector specialisation.

This article aims to demonstrate that technological advancement was mainly responsible for the occurrence of the four agricultural revolutions, the Commercial Revolution and the four industrial revolutions that changed the world throughout the history of humanity.

The phenomenon of the commercial revolution 4.0 encourages MSME actors to comply with current trends in order that the goods produced may be competitive. Creative enterprise merchandise require innovation competencies with a view to produce advanced merchandise. This study takes a look at discusses improvement troubles withinside the MSME quarter that are despite the fact that restricted in conventional organization control, inadequate fine of human assets, manufacturing scale and strategies, low innovation functionality and confined get admission to to economic establishments, especially banking. The growth the variety of enterprise actors primarily based totally on facts from the Cooperatives Office the town of Bogor in 2021 with a mean growth of 6.141% of all forms of organizations isn't always matched with the aid of using trends the subject of innovation to assist enhance the advertising overall performance of SMEs the town of Bogor. Where in enhancing the capacity of innovation, it's miles anticipated to synergize with Customer Relationship Marketing or CRM such as numerous information, consumer involvement, long-time period partnerships and technology-primarily based totally trouble fixing in developing enterprise overall performance.

A macrohistory of legal evolution and coevolution: Property, procedure, and contract in early-modern English caselaw

We study the emergence of urban self-governance in the late medieval period. We focus on England after the Norman Conquest of 1066, building a novel comprehensive dataset of 554 medieval towns. During the Commercial Revolution (twelfth to thirteenth centuries), many merchant towns obtained Farm Grants: the right of self-governed tax collection and law enforcement. Self-governance, in turn, was a stepping stone for parliamentary representation: Farm Grant towns were much more likely to be summoned directly to the medieval English Parliament than otherwise similar towns. We also show that self-governed towns strengthened the role of Parliament and shaped national institutions over the subsequent centuries. (JEL D02, D72, D73, K11, K34, N43, N93)

Oligarchy and egalitarian social movement are two topics that are covered in this article, along with poverty, increasing deprivation, and egalitarian movement. In order to trace the overall consequences of industrial developments, the debate has a tendency toward oligarchy. The earlier Commercial Revolution must have had certain deviations in order to indicate the beginnings of the nation-state as well as tendencies of industrialization and revolution. The development of industry led to the formation of a wage-dependent working class in urban settings, which was a necessary but oppressive division of the workforce. The English Revolution of the seventeenth century, the American and French Revolutions of the eighteenth century, and the bourgeois revolution, which was a political theory founded on the inherent rights of life, liberty, property, revolution, and popular sovereignty are all examined in this article.

Peter Blanchard's new book is an ambitious effort to examine the antecedents of May 25, 1810. The author is an established historian of colonial Río de la Plata with broad archival experience. His ambition is made clear by the geographic breadth of his research. In a field focused on the viceregal capital city, Blanchard's decision to examine the viceroyalty's three largest cities, Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and Córdoba, is a welcome expansion in scale and perspective. Every specialist will also appreciate the rich historical detail that propels his narrative of late colonial social and political history. While these rewards are substantial, he fails in his ambition to add significantly to our understanding of the origins of independence in the Río de la Plata.Blanchard's original intention was to examine the development of elite disaffection with Spanish rule in the decades prior to the Spanish political crises of 1808. Having found little “overt or even covert opposition to the crown or to Spain” in the archives, he reversed field to ask why the rioplatense elite remained steadfast despite the disruptive impact of colonial administrative and economic reforms that contemporaneously unsettled the longer established, wealthier, and more populous viceroyalties of Mexico and Peru (p. 6).Blanchard concludes that the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 provided this colonial elite with significant enhancements in wealth and prestige, a reward cache that reinforced an already strong conservative inclination. While the appetite for honors and wealth is seldom sated within any elite, Blanchard correctly believes that the reform-mandated transfer of Andean mineral wealth to the viceroyalty's urban centers led to a flood of commercial opportunities, honors, and prestigious positions that uplifted the status of the most powerful and affluent colonial families, reinforcing loyalty to crown and colonial state.Blanchard believes that these benefits alone do not explain elite loyalty. Instead, he argues that in reaction to a series of existential threats, the elite became convinced that Spain was the only viable guarantor of its privileged social and economic position. He examines the Andean rebellions of the 1780s, the appearance of revolutionary ideas after 1789, the restiveness of rapidly expanding slave populations, and Portuguese and British geopolitical threats in separate chapters that add rich detail to our knowledge of the period. However, neither his discussion of the elite nor his narrative of these threats alters existing understandings of the origin or timing of independence.Having concluded that the viceroyalty's elite remained largely tranquil and mostly loyal until well after the defeat of the second British invasion, Blanchard is left with no real alternative to an explanation of independence focused on distant political actors and events. Every historian would agree that the Spanish abdications and French invasion of Iberia shocked the Spanish colonial system and provoked an array of disruptive and destabilizing political challenges. The May Revolution was one of these reactions. But unlike contemporaneous rebellions elsewhere in Spain's American empire, this experiment survived every challenge, internal or external, until Spain acquiesced to the reality of American independence more than a decade later. It seems likely to me that events prior to 1808 are key to explaining this distinct trajectory.In his survey of the elite, Blanchard discusses the way that the tumultuous and unpredictable rhythms of Atlantic commerce affected the fortunes of individual merchants, but he does not assess the destabilizing impact of these forces on elite membership and status across time. As a result, he fails to identify the appearance of enduring political factions and commercial alliances that resulted from changing trade patterns. After 1790 Spanish-born merchants made wealthy by the Spanish monopoly system lost ground to alliances of creole and foreign merchants in the Río de la Plata. Merchants from places as distant as Mauritius and Connecticut found local allies, established speculative partnerships, and pursued profits outside the boundaries of traditional commerce. Locked in a struggle for wealth and power, these competing commercial factions mobilized to protect their interests in a market constantly challenged by war and altered trade opportunities. Even if this commercial revolution lacked clear political intent, the undeniable consequence was Spain's loss of economic sovereignty in the Río de la Plata.Following the British invasion of 1806, the merchant elite assumed leadership roles in the military and political resistance. Over the next two years their decisions swept aside established colonial authorities and marginalized Spanish colonial institutions. With elite merchants providing key leadership, a new militia army was organized and financed. Then, in a dramatic break with colonial practice, a popular movement guided by these same elite figures stripped the Spanish viceroy of his military and political commands, elevating Santiago de Liniers as de facto viceroy. So well before news of the abdications and French invasion reached the Río de la Plata in July 1808, members of the commercial elite supported by leading officials of the militia had effectively superseded the colonial bureaucracy and military establishment. While independence was not yet inevitable in the Río de la Plata, the local elite had asserted a political agency impossible to contain within the institutions of Spain's colonial empire.

The article discusses oligarchy and Egalitarian social movement, Poverty, Increasing Deprivation, and Egalitarian Movement the discussion contains oligarchy tendency, in order to trace the general effects of industrial trends, deviations from the previous Commercial Revolution are necessary as they mark the origins of the nation-state and trends. The industrialization and revolution. Oligarchy, Ideology, and the Emergence of Political Parties. Industrial trends resulted in a necessary but repressive division of the workforce and created a wage-dependent working class in urban environments. The English Revolution of the seventeenth century and the American and French Revolutions of the eighteenth century the bourgeois revolution with a political doctrine based on the natural rights of life, liberty. property, revolution, and popular sovereignty

The medieval bill of exchange and marine insurance are widely regarded by historians as financial instruments central to the long-distance trade that fuelled the commercial revolution of pre-modern Europe. Marine insurance was rooted in partnership contracts (commenda, societas maris), which, by splitting risk, mitigated loss due to storms, pirates and war. The bill of exchange, by which a merchant promised to repay a loan in another currency and place, combined the promissory note with currency exchange. Some early modern authors attributed the invention of these financial instruments to medieval Jews who, these authors supposed, used them to secrete wealth out of lands from which Jews had been expelled. Intrigued by the legend of Jewish origins, Francesca Trivellato (an Italian historian known for her work on Jews and cross-cultural trade in the early modern period) sets out to find when, where and why this ‘legend’ emerged. The book is the intellectual history of this legend. Trivellato traces the legend of Jewish origins back to the seventeenth-century genre of mercantile law books, in particular to Étienne Cleriac’s widely used Us et coustumes de la mer (1647), Jacques Savary’s ‘commercial manifesto’ Le parfait négociant (1675), and Savary’s sons’ bestselling Dictionnaire universel de commerce (1723–30). In the mid-eighteenth century, Montesquieu incorporated it into his De l’esprit des lois. With Montesquieu, the legend leapt from the backwaters of mercantile law to the mainstream of political theory. And as the reach of the legend expanded, the image of its Jewish inventors underwent significant change. Cleriac’s version of the legend was rooted in rank medieval stereotypes of Jewish usurers, while the Savarys stripped away these negative connotations. But in Montesquieu’s hands, the Jews became economic liberators—the obverse of usurers. The Jewish bill of exchange was not a species of nefarious usury, but a means of liberation from the economic stagnation of medieval Catholic doctrine. With this invention, ‘Jews introduced new dynamism into Europe’s economy and became harbringers of modernity’ (p. 134). However, Montesquieu’s positive vision of Jews as a modernising commercial force was reversed with the French Revolution.

The subject of this paper is about the economic background of the first universities in Europe. While there are different opinions about the first appearance of universities in the 12nd century, the economic background has not been discussed. In this respect, ideas about the emergence of universities are suggested that either Greco-Roman or Muslims’s eductional traditions are influenced. However, although not directly, some studies also related to an indirect relationship between the establishment of universities and the ‘Commercial Revolution’, which started in the 12th century. Since there is not enough focus on the subject being signaled, this study discusses the strong link between the emergence of universities and the Commercial Revolution. Therefore, the study covers the 12th and 15th centuries in which universities were built extensively. It is undoubtedly a new approach to establishing a link between economic developments and economic activities for the establishment of universities. Thus, with the results of the study, it will be possible to produce predictions about the new attitudes that today’s university institution will take. Therefore, a new idea is being produced for the establishment of universities, and a new claim is made. Historical cases and published economic series are used to address the issue. In this respect, the work is thanks to secondary resources. The focus is on economic reviews, correlations with economic activities in cities where universities are established, and legal requirements are established. At the end of the paper, it is revealed that the economic and legal demands that emerged with the Commercial Revolution are the most important factors in the establishment of universities.

In the long history of the feudal society of China, Kaifeng played a vital role. During the Northern Song Dynasty, Kaifeng became a worldwide metropolis. The important reason was that the Grand Canal, which was excavated during the Sui Dynasty, became the main transportation artery for the political and military center of the north and the economic center of the south. Furthermore, Kaifeng was located at the center of the Grand Canal, which made it the capital of the later Northern Song Dynasty. The Northern Song Dynasty was called “the canal-centered era.” The development of the canal caused a series of major changes in the society of the Northern Song Dynasty that were different from the previous ones, which directly led to the transportation revolution, and in turn, promoted the commercial revolution and the urbanization of Kaifeng. The development of commerce contributed to the agricultural and money revolutions. After the Northern Song Dynasty, the political center moved to the south. During the Yuan Dynasty, the excavation of the Grand Canal made it so that water transport did not have to pass through the Central Plains. The relocation of the political center and the change in the canal route made Kaifeng lose the value of connecting the north and south, resulting in the long-time fall of the Bianhe River. Kaifeng, which had prospered for more than 100 years, declined gradually, and by the end of the Qing Dynasty, it became a common town in the Central Plains. In ancient China, the rise and fall of cities and regions were closely related to the canal, and the relationship between Kaifeng and the Grand Canal was typical. The history may provide some inspiration for the increasingly severe urban and regional sustainable development issues in contemporary times.

The “commercial revolution” driven by the spread of large-scale retail is always spatially differentiated. Even within an economically developed region, such as Lombardy, significant differences can be seen between territories with regard to the structure and evolution of the distribution network. The paper considers the case of Lower Lombardy, a vast rural area which includes 424 municipalities split into 4 provinces (Pavia, Lodi, Cremona and Mantua). An eccentric outlook is adopted compared to trade geography studies, which are usually focused on large urban areas, overlooking what occurs in peripheral contexts. The restructuring of the distribution network between 2001 and 2019 is investigated, highlighting how the municipalities of the southern part of Lombardy witnessed different evolutionary trajectories in relation to their demographic size and their position in the urban network. The image of trade decline, often associated with rural areas, is too simplistic and conceals different processes, which restructure the relationships internal to those areas. The paper also highlights a concerning process of weakening of the proximity commercial supply: are we moving towards the formation of food deserts?

Class differences and the Commercial Revolution: An equilibrium selection story

Abstract Why did fifteenth-century Genoese slaveholders insure the lives of enslaved pregnant women? I argue that their assessment of the risks associated with childbirth reflected their views on the connection between slavery, property, and lineage. Genoese slaveholders saw the reproductive labor of enslaved women as a potential contribution to their lineage as well as their property. Because their children by enslaved women might become their heirs, Genoese slaveholders were inclined to worry about and seek protection against the risk of maternal mortality. In the context of the commercial revolution and the rise of third-party insurance, they developed life insurance for enslaved pregnant women to complement the fines already required of those who illegally impregnated enslaved women and thereby endangered their lives.