Reliable modeling of emissions and dispersion of pollutants emitted in exhaust gases from motor vehicles is highly challenging due to the presence of multiple variables and inconsistencies in input data quality across different stages of the process. This article focuses on the vehicle fleet. It has been demonstrated that the structure of the vehicle fleet in a given area varies depending on the data collection methods and sources, which ultimately determines the dispersion results. This issue becomes particularly significant in urban environments, where the intensity of road traffic is high, and ventilation conditions are often poor, partly due to the formation of street canyons by dense urban development. The modeling was conducted at a selected intersection in Wrocław for various fleet structure scenarios. The results were compared with the results of pollutant concentrations from a nearby air quality monitoring station. The Copert emission model and emission factors from the European EMEP/Corinair database were used. In contrast, the GRAL model, a CFD model (suitable for urban dispersion modeling), was used to simulate pollution dispersion.

Noise pollution from internal combustion engines in vehicles and industrial equipment poses an environmental challenge. Exhaust systems use mufflers to reduce noise by attenuating sound waves. This study focuses on optimizing the extended inlet length and diameter in a reactive muffler with a single expansion chamber and extended sections. The aim is to enhance transmission loss in a targeted frequency range for better noise reduction. Using the Taguchi Method, the study identified optimal design parameters for sound attenuation. Acoustic performance was assessed through two methods: (1) numerical simulations using COMSOL Multiphysics and the Finite Element Method (FEM) to analyze sound wave behavior, and (2) experimental validation via the two-load method to measure transmission loss in a prototype. Results highlight key design insights for optimizing reactive mufflers, offering a robust framework for achieving superior noise control in applications requiring frequency-specific attenuation.

Recent years’ developments have brought a considerable number of battery electric vehicles (BEV) onto the road. As the engine compartment does not contain a combustion engine representing a stiff mass block, it raises the question whether the structural stiffness compared to combustion engine vehicles (CEV) has changed or not and if so, how. In accident reconstruction, the crashworthiness of CEVs of the various types has been the focus of attention for decades. However, there is no data relating to the practice of accident reconstruction that directly compares CEVs with BEVs. The frontal impact crash tests as part of the New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) allow a comparison of measurement data of CEVs and BEVs. Therefore, 32 crash tests including 16 BEVs and 16 CEVs were evaluated. The results from barrier force and acceleration data are indicating remarkable differences between the two vehicle concepts. Acceleration data can be trustworthy for representing the motion of the vehicle structure but in many cases, especially with CEVs, the acceleration data show local vibrations of the accelerometer’s surrounding structure also after data post processing. Regarding barrier force as the more reliable data source for evaluating vehicle’s frontal stiffness, it was found that in the mean CEVs are 14% stiffer than BEVs. The CEVs experienced a 12% lower crush depth than the BEVs. Vehicle linearized stiffnesses are provided section by section. This data can be helpful for the reconstruction of real traffic accidents with a force based impact model.

Traffic safety experiments are often conducted in virtual environments in order to avoid dangerous situations and conduct the experiments more cost-efficiently. This means that attention must be paid to the fidelity of the traffic scenario reproduction, because the pedestrians’ judgments have to be close to reality. To understand behavior in relation to the prevailing audio rendering systems better, a listening test was conducted which focused on perceptual differences between simulation and playback methods. Six vehicle driving-by-scenes were presented using two different simulation methods and three different playback methods, and binaural recordings from the test track acquired during the recordings of the vehicle sound sources for the simulation were additionally incorporated. Each vehicle driving-by-scene was characterized by different vehicle types and different speeds. Participants rated six attributes of the perceptual dimensions: “timbral balance”, “naturalness”, “room-related”, “source localization”, “loudness” and “speed perception”. While the ratings showed a high degree of similarity among the ratings of the sound attributes in the different reproduction systems, there were minor differences in the speed and loudness estimations and the different perceptions of brightness stood out. A comparison of the loudness ratings in the scenes featuring electric and combustion-engine vehicles highlights the issue of reduced detection abilities with regard to the former.

The basic method of protecting the engine against the destructive effects of mineral dust sucked in with the air intake to the engine are air filters. Passenger cars will be equipped with single-stage filters with a filter insert (porous partition) in the form of a panel made of pleated filter paper. Filter papers show insufficient filtration accuracy of dust grains below 5 µm. The principles of shaping traditional filter partitions made of pleated filter paper and the principles of selecting a filter insert for a car engine using the criterion of permissible filtration speed are presented. The principle of operation and construction as well as the properties of filters with axial air flow, which are made in the modern PowerCore technology, are shown, which reduces the filter dimensions, at the same time resulting in lower pressure drop and greater dust absorption, and therefore a longer period of operation. The article pays special attention to the properties of nanofibers, which are produced from polymers using the «electrospinning» technology, and their filtration properties enable the improvement of the efficiency and accuracy of engine intake air filtration. The results of experimental tests of the efficiency and accuracy of filtration and pressure drop performed for several filter beds differing in structure parameters are presented. It has been shown that the nanofiber layer significantly increases the efficiency and accuracy of filtration of dust grains below 5 µm. Low filtration parameters of the filter beds in the initial filtration period have been demonstrated, which negatively affects engine wear.

Research is related to ultrasonic purification of exhaust gases of internal combustion engines of vehicles. The hypothesis of using ultrasonic radiation for purification of exhaust gases from harmful impurities and solid particles is proposed. The scheme of the ultrasonic muffler developed by the authors is presented. A mathematical model of the coagulation of exhaust gas particles in an ultrasonic muffler has been developed. Theoretical dependencies of coagulation coefficient are obtained. An experimental stand has been developed that models an ultrasonic muffler. The results of experimental studies proving possibility and efficiency of using the process of ultrasonic purification from harmful impurities and solid particles are presented. The dependencies of the content of harmful impurities in the exhaust gases were obtained, without exposure and under the influence of ultrasound at different engine revolutions. Experimental relationships of changes in toxic impurities and solid particles (exhaust carbon) are used in the calculation and design method when creating the design of an ultrasonic muffler

Abstract Electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid powertrain vehicles are an increasingly common alternative to pure gasoline vehicles. However, most have significantly shorter drivable ranges than combustion engine vehicles, require a long waiting period to recharge, have a low specific power, or are prohibitively expensive and heavy. The goal of this work is to develop and showcase a high-power density generator, which may be used as a component in an EV or hybrid drivetrain. The generator can be used as, for example, a range extender for an EV, or a generator for hybrid powertrains where specific power is important, such as in unmanned aerial vehicles, marine applications, motorcycles, and all terrain vehicles. Moreover, the generator of this work is constructed from commercially available components configured to be easily transportable and remain substantially lightweight. The device discussed in this work comprises a two-stroke single-cylinder gasoline engine and a compact permanent magnet brushless dynamo, assembled as a generator. The advantages of this combination include compactness, simplicity, lower weight, and high specific power. This paper discusses the design and experimental development of such a portable high-power-density power generator. The performance and emissions characteristics of the generator are investigated at varying loads and engine speed. During preliminary experiments, the power generator produced 8.5 kW while having a dry weight of 21 kg. Future design recommendations for the use of alternative or renewable fuels are also explored.

Electric vehicles are increasingly seen as a viable alternative to conventional combustion-engine vehicles, offering advantages such as lower emissions and enhanced energy efficiency. The critical role of batteries in EVs drives the need for high-performance, cost-effective, and safe solutions, where thermal management is key to ensuring optimal performance and longevity. This study is motivated by the need to address the limitations of current battery thermal management systems (BTMS), particularly the effectiveness of cooling methods in maintaining safe operating temperatures. The hypothesis is that immersion cooling offers superior thermal regulation compared to the widely used indirect liquid cooling approach. Using MATLAB Simulink, this research investigates the dynamic thermal behaviour of three cooling systems, including air cooling, indirect liquid cooling, and immersion cooling, by comparing their performance with an uncooled battery. The results show that immersion cooling outperforms indirect liquid cooling in terms of temperature control and safety, providing a more efficient solution. These findings challenge the existing literature, positioning immersion cooling as the optimal BTMS. The main contribution of this paper lies in its comprehensive evaluation of cooling technologies and its validation of immersion cooling as a superior method for enhancing EV battery performance.

Large eddy simulation of the dispersion of short duration emissions: Implications for the metrological evaluation of remote sensing devices for on-road emissions monitoring

Cold chains are essential in providing people with food and medicine across the globe. As the global environmental crisis poses an existential threat to humanity and societies strive for more sustainable ways of life, these critically important systems need to adapt to the needs of a new era. As it is, the transportation sector as a whole accounts for a fifth of global emissions, with the cold chain being embedded in this old fossil-fuel-dependent infrastructure. With the EU is passing regulations and legislation to cut down on emissions and phase out polluting technologies like combustion engine vehicles, the next couple of decades in Europe will be defined by rapid infrastructural change. For logistics and cold transportation, this shift presents many opportunities but also highlights the need for innovation and new research. In this literature review, we identify pressing issues with the current urban cold chain, review the recent research around environmental optimization in urban logistics, and give a cross-section of the field: what the trending research topics in urban logistics optimization across the globe are, and what kind of blind spots are identifiable in the body of research, as well as changes arising with future green logistics infrastructure. We approach the issues discussed specifically from the point of view of refrigerated urban transportation, though many issues extend beyond it to transportation infrastructure at large.

Hybrid electric aircraft design with optimal power management

This analysis compares the energy efficiency and operational costs of combustion vehicles (Hyundai Accent 1.6 L and Chevrolet Sail 1.5 L) with the Nissan Leaf, an electric vehicle, under current fuel and electricity pricing in Ecuador. Combustion vehicles, converting gasoline into mechanical energy, demonstrate substantial energy losses, leading to higher operational costs, especially with recent gasoline price hikes to USD 2.722 per gallon. In stark contrast, the Nissan Leaf exhibits significantly greater energy efficiency, consuming only 15–20 kWh per 100 km, which translates to lower running costs (USD 11.20 to fully charge a 40 kWh battery). Despite the clear economic and environmental benefits of electric vehicles, their adoption in Ecuador is hampered by geographical challenges such as diverse terrain that can affect vehicle range and battery longevity. Moreover, the limited and uneven distribution of EV charging stations, mostly concentrated in urban areas, poses significant barriers. For broader implementation, a strategic expansion of the EV infrastructure and careful consideration of the national energy grid’s capacity to support increased electric vehicle uptake are essential. Addressing these challenges is crucial for realizing the full potential of electric vehicles in enhancing Ecuador’s sustainability and energy independence.

<div>The initial cost of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is higher than internal combustion engine-powered vehicles (ICEVs) due to expensive batteries. Various factors affect the total cost of ownership of a vehicle. In India, consumers are concerned with a vehicle’s initial purchase cost and prefer owning an economical vehicle. The higher cost and shorter range of BEVs compared to ICEVs severely limit their penetration in the Indian market. However, government subsidies and incentives support BEVs. The total cost of ownership assessment is used to evaluate the entire cost of a vehicle to find the most economical option among different powertrains. This study compares 2W (two-wheeler) and 4W (four-wheeler) BEV’s cost vis-à-vis equivalent ICEVs in Delhi and Mumbai. The cost analysis assesses the current and future government policies to promote BEVs. Two assumed policies were applied to estimate future scenarios. Annual distance traveled, battery replacement assumptions, and fuel/electricity prices were used for sensitivity analyses. It was found that the total cost of ownership of 2W BEVs in Mumbai and Delhi was lower than the ICEVs, only if heavily supported by government subsidies and incentives. In contrast, with assumed future policies, owning 4W BEVs was costlier, even with government subsidies. This study showed that if a vehicle travels more than the average annual distance traveled, BEVs can be a better option and make sense for niche applications such as taxi fleet operations or ride-hailing services. The current incentives were much more for 4W than 2W, implying a disproportionate allocation of subsidies to the wealthier, who can afford 4W vehicles. The funds required for subsidies, losses in fuel taxes because of lower sales, and tax exemptions offered to BEVs could cost up to ₹146,062 crores (i.e., $19 billion) annually to the Indian government in 2030, which is ~ ₹973 per capita, excluding investments required to build charging infrastructure. Therefore, India needs a targeted subsidy allocation plan, prioritizing 2W, and a phased strategy for an orderly and inclusive transition to a sustainable mobility future.</div> <section> <h2>Graphical Abstract</h2> <figure> <div><img/></div> </figure> </section>

The air pollution caused by greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), is a significant environmental concern that impacts air quality and contributes to global warming. The transportation sector plays a pivotal role in this issue, being a major contributor to CO2 emissions. In light of this situation, this article proposes a methodology that utilizes a supervised learning algorithm to estimate CO2 emissions and compare vehicles fueled with ethanol and gasoline. Additionally, the solution adopts an online, unsupervised machine learning algorithm to identify data outliers and improve the confidence in the results. Furthermore, this work incorporates the concept of digital twins, using virtual models of vehicles to carry out more extensive pollution simulations and allowing the simulation of various types of vehicles and the modeling of realistic traffic scenarios. A supervised machine learning approach was adopted to infer emission data in the model, allowing more comprehensive and meaningful comparisons between real-world and simulated measurements. The performed analyses of pollution emissions for different speeds and sections of routes demonstrate that CO2 emissions from ethanol were significantly lower than those from gasoline, favoring more sustainable fuels even in combustion engine vehicles. Adopting cleaner fuels is perceived as crucial to mitigate the negative effects of climate change, with plant-based fuels like ethanol being crucial during the transition from fossil fuels to a more sustainable vehicular landscape.

The work highlights the problems of using coolants in vehicles equipped with internal combustion engines, as well as their compatibility with each other. Since the problem of choosing the latter is due to the fact that the range of coolants on the market is extremely wide. Each type contains a certain set of additives that affect its main characteristics: freezing and boiling temperatures, density, etc. And the single color of the coolant does not guarantee that these antifreezes belong to the same group. An analysis of the works of leading domestic and foreign scientists devoted to the problem of choosing and using coolants for internal combustion engines of vehicles was carried out, which showed that the actual problem is the correct selection of coolant for a specific vehicle and the corresponding conditions of its operation. The main factors affecting the use of cooling liquids for internal combustion engines, as well as their compatibility with each other, are highlighted. Recommendations are given for the selection of coolants and their use, the main factor for the selection of coolant for internal combustion engines is the standard according to which the liquid is manufactured. It is not necessary to get attached only to the color, but to select the type - based on the tolerances of the car manufacturer of a specific vehicle. It is shown that there is no clear and unequivocal answer to the question of which antifreeze is better. The fact that lowrid coolants are the best option is obvious, but it is necessary to take into account the requirements of the car manufacturer first of all. The range of coolants on the automotive market of Ukraine is huge. In addition to the fact that each type of liquid contains its own complex of additives, it also differs in its main characteristics: density, boiling and freezing points. Therefore, an obvious answer arises - use only fluids recommended by the car manufacturer.

Changing the ignition advance angle has a significant impact on the performance of a combustion engine. Optimization of ignition advance angle is a major task of adjusting engine concerning emission standards, fuel consumption, torque value, etc. The results of the research showed that the process of optimizing ignition advance curve can noticeably increase engine efficiency, as well as torque and power output from the engine, while reducing fuel consumption as a result of lower indications of the air flow mass per second from MAF sensor (mass air flow sensor). The highest impact of the ignition advanced angle modifications can be seen in the area of the highest volumetric efficiency of the tested combustion engine. Almost no impact is observed within high engine speed levels. Simultaneously increasing engine load and rotation speed increases the possibility of engine knocking, which has devastating effect on engine durability.

The existing shift from combustion engine vehicles to electric vehicles has created this perception that electric vehicles are flawless. The purpose of this study was to measure how aware people are of the cradle-to-grave process of electric vehicles, measuring their complete environmental footprint. This study conducted an experiment among high school students across all grade levels at one school to examine their understanding of the environmental effects of electric vehicles. Students (N=278) were asked to answer seven demographic questions, 7 environmental questions, 6 questions about the cradle-to-grave process, and 5 questions about combustion engine vehicles. Students self-reported their knowledge about each of these categories, on a 1-5 likert scale. The results indicated that the students were not as aware about the cradle-to-grave process of electric vehicles, while they knew statistically more about combustion engine vehicles. The implications of this study suggest a need for better education regarding electric vehicles through schools and better online research, which in turn, will create a more informed society.

Die casting is part of manufacturing process for making metal product, especially internal combustion engine of vehicle. Molding is component for making product from metallurgy process or polymer process. Basically, all part of molding process will be using 3 conditions of process. First is solid raw material for process production, second is melting process of raw material for making product using molding and third is solid for part of finish product after process molding process. In this research will analyze of molding process and structure of engine for internal combustion engine vehicle. Mold casting will be using specification for SUV capacity 2.7L. basic raw material is silica sand, resin, bentonite, and sea coal. The result show that after process mixing optimal pressure from machine to molding is 109675,8 N. and spot test check result show that, after process die casting no any crack founding by 10 specimens of engine of vehicle.

Sustainable construction project of electric vehicle charging stations: A risk-based hybrid decision-making approach

<div>There are significant differences in sound and vibration between combustion engine vehicles (CV) and electric vehicles (EV), which may affect occupants’ experiences of overall ride comfort. There have been few studies on human perception of the overall ride comfort in EVs. The purpose of this study is to identify how sound and vibration influence perceived overall ride comfort in an EV under different driving scenarios and to study differences between an EV and a CV in terms of the influences of sound and vibration on the perceived ride comfort. The user study compared the experiences of ten participants’ riding in a CV and an EV through eight typical driving scenarios. The subjective judgment and objective measurements showed that in the EV, dynamic discomfort was dominated by high-frequency tones from electric components. The influence of sound on dynamic discomfort was more pronounced in the EV, and the causes of sound annoyance differed between the EV and the CV. In the CV, sound annoyance was primarily attributed to tire noise at lower speeds and wind noise at higher speeds. Meanwhile in the EV, sound annoyance was caused by high-frequency tonal sounds from the electric motor, especially in scenarios at lower speeds. When switching the CV engine on and off, low-frequency sounds and vibrations were pronounced. The EV produced no significant vibration during start/stop and emitted only a designed signature sound. The conclusion is that under different driving scenarios, sound and vibration have different influence on the perceived overall ride comfort in the CV and EV. Thus, ride discomfort in the CV and EV are affected by various properties of sound and vibration.</div>