Combative Behavior Research Articles

Neuroethology: A Review of Studies on Combat Behavior in Mice

Optogenetics has revolutionized neuroscience, enabling precise control and monitoring of neural circuits. This study focuses on the neural mechanisms underlying combat behaviors in mice, particularly the roles of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) in freezing, jumping escape, and defensive attack behaviors. The research employed a combination of optogenetic tools, behavioral assays, and high-resolution imaging techniques. Genetically modified mice expressing channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) and halorhodopsin (NpHR) were used. Viral vectors were injected into specific brain regions, and optogenetic stimulation was performed to activate or inhibit neuronal populations. Behavioral responses were documented and analyzed using specialized software, and brain tissues were prepared for histological examination. Activation of VMH neurons increased jumping escape behavior, while inhibition reduced defensive attack behaviors, highlighting the VMH's critical role in these responses. High-resolution video analysis provided detailed metrics on behavior, and histological examination confirmed precise targeting and expression of optogenetic proteins in the brain. The results demonstrated the direct influence of specific neural circuits on combat behaviors. The study elucidated the roles of VMH and associated neural circuits in mediating combat behaviors in mice. Optogenetic techniques provided precise control over neuronal activity, revealing critical insights into the neural mechanisms underlying these behaviors. The findings support the VMH's central role in regulating instinctual defensive actions and offer potential applications for developing therapeutic strategies for anxiety and pain disorders.

Recent Southern Hemisphere Lamprimine Stag Beetle in Cretaceous Burmese Amber and Its Biogeographic Implications (Coleoptera: Lucanidae).

A new stag beetle fossil, Prostreptocerus burmiticus Yu & Cai gen. et sp. nov., is described based on a single male specimen. This is the first representative of the subfamily Lampriminae (Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidea: Lucanidae) from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. The new species is distinctive among Lucanidae due to its well-developed, right-angled mandible, frons featuring a pair of large protuberances, a coarse and sparsely punctate elytral disc, and large tubercles on the humeri. Prostreptocerus Yu & Cai is placed within Lampriminae based on several key characteristics. Morphologically, it is most similar to the extant Streptocerus Fairmaire, 1850. The current distribution of Streptocerus and Lampriminae is primarily restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, suggesting that this lineage is ancient and existed on Gondwanaland, which has significant geographical implications. This discovery extends the fossil record of Lampriminae and provides additional evidence for the existence of sexual dimorphism and potential combat behavior in Mesozoic lucanids. Additionally, Electraesalopsis Bai, Zhang & Qiu, 2017, previously placed as Lucanidae incertae sedis, shares many characteristics with Prostreptocerus Yu & Cai and is also assigned to Lampriminae based on a suite of traits.

Headbutting through time: A review of this hypothesized behavior in "dome-headed" fossil taxa.

Headbutting is a combative behavior most popularly portrayed and exemplified in the extant bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis). When behaviorally proposed in extinct taxa, these organisms are oft depicted Ovis-like as having used modified cranial structures to combatively slam into one another. The combative behavioral hypothesis of headbutting has a long and rich history in the vertebrate fossil literature (not just within Dinosauria), but the core of this behavioral hypothesis in fossil terrestrial vertebrates is associated with an enlarged osseous cranial dome-an osteological structure with essentially no current counterpart. One confounding issue found in the literature is that while the term "headbutting" sounds simplistic enough, little terminology has been used to describe this hypothesized behavior. And pertinent to this special issue, potential brain trauma and the merits of such proposed pugilism have been assessed largely from the potential deformation of the overlying osseous structure; despite the fact that extant taxa readily show that brain damage can and does occur without osteological compromise. Additionally, the extant taxa serving as the behavioral counterpart for comparison are critical, not only because of the combative behaviors and morphologies they display, but also the way they engage in such behavior. Sheep (Ovis), warthogs (Phacochoerus), and bison (Bison) all engage in various forms of "headbutting", but the cranial morphologies and the way each engages in combat is markedly different. To hypothesize that an extinct organism engaged in headbutting like an extant counterpart in theory implies specific striking:contacting surfaces, speed, velocity, and overall how that action was executed. This review examines the history and usage of the headbutting behavioral hypothesis in these dome-headed fossil taxa, their respective extant behavioral counterparts, and proposes a protocol for specific behavioral terms relating to headbutting to stem future confusion. We also discuss the disparate morphology of combative cranial structures in the fossil record, and the implications of headbutting-induced brain injury in extinct taxa. Finally, we conclude with some potential implications for artistic reconstructions of fossil taxa regarding this behavioral repertoire.

Addressing Combative Behaviour in Spanish Bulls by Measuring Hormonal Indicators.

The fighting bull is characterised by its natural aggressiveness, but the physiological mechanisms that underlie its aggressive behaviour are poorly studied. This study determines the hormonal component of aggressiveness in fighting bulls by analysing their behaviour during a fight and correlating it to their serotonin, dopamine and testosterone levels. We also determine whether aggressive behaviour can be estimated in calves. Using 195 animals, samples were obtained when the animals were calves and after 5 years. Aggressiveness scores were obtained by an observational method during bullfights, and serotonin, dopamine and testosterone levels were determined in all animals using validated enzyme immunoassay kits. The results revealed a strong correlation of serotonin and dopamine levels with aggressiveness scores in bulls during fights, but no correlation was found with respect to testosterone. These correlations led to established cut-off point and linear regression curves to obtain expected aggressiveness scores for calves at shoeing. There were no significant differences between the expected scores obtained in calves and the observed scores in bulls. Therefore, this study demonstrates that hormone determination in calves may be a great indicator of combativeness in bulls and can reliably be used in the selection of fighting bulls.

Sexual dimorphism in the Neotropical snakes genus Chironius (Serpentes: Colubridae)

Abstract Sexual dimorphism is a common phenomenon among snakes, with female snakes being larger than male snakes as a recurrent pattern . However, species that show male-male combat behaviour may impose a selective advantage by developing larger bodies in male specimens, like the diurnal Chironius snakes, which display courtship and male-male combat behaviours. In this study, we analysed sexual dimorphism in body, tail, and head size, and skull size and shape in twelve species of Chironius. We investigated whether sexual dimorphism patterns could be a result of allometric growth. The absence of sexual dimorphism regarding body and head length was the main pattern revealed by our analyses. Sexual dimorphism characterized by larger body and head sizes in males was observed in Chironius bicarinatus, Chironius foveatus, and Chironius fuscus. Only females of Chironius exoletus exhibited larger body and head sizes than males. Regarding the shape of the head, six species showed sexual divergences, with enlarged or robust heads. Sexual dimorphism in skull shape seems related to selection in Chironius flavolineatus, with no allometric influences. Larger tails in males of C. fuscus, C. flavolineatus, and Chironius quadricarinatus may represent an advantageous defensive strategy. Finally, the lack of divergence in tail length in the remaining species probably evolved due to arboreal habits in Chironius.

Biomechanical skull performance in the meiolaniid Niolamia argentina (Testudinata: Meiolaniidae) using finite element analysis

ABSTRACT The use of horns and frills for sexual display and attack has been proposed and demonstrated in extinct taxa on several occasions, with the ceratopsian dinosaurs as the most iconic example. Niolamia argentina is a large meiolaniid turtle from Patagonia, characterized by the presence of extensive frills and massive horns in the skull. Here, Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is applied in the only known adult skull of N. argentina to assess the cranial performance simulating defensive/aggressive movements. We tested five different scenarios: (1) hitting with the snout, (2) hitting with the forehead, (3) struggling with the notch between the frill and the horn, (4) stabbing with lateral horns, and (5) caudal torsion of the frills, the last two being the most damaging and stressful scenarios. Together with the lack of skull features related to head-hitting/fighting, we find that, although the cranial structures of Niolamia argentina studied here may indicate a priori that they were for engaging in combat between males, hitting each other with the caudal frills and trying to stab each other may represent highly stressful scenarios. In this sense, we propose that the presence of frills and horns in N. argentina seems to be more suitable for sexual display than for combat behavior.

SAT160 Alcoholic Ketoacidosis : An Endocrine Emergency

Abstract Disclosure: L.E. Tiu: None. T.D. Crisostomo: None. Background: Alcoholic Ketoacidosis is a complex metabolic condition frequently confused with Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Currently, there remains an undefined consensus guideline in the diagnosis and management of this disorder that leads to unreported cases. Clinical Case: A 47-year-old male presented with 2-day history of poor dietary intake due to abdominal pain and vomiting after an alcoholic binge drinking. He is a chronic alcoholic beverage drinker (2 liters of beer per day for 10 years). He has family history of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus but has no known co-morbidities. Upon admission, vital signs were normal, but he was drowsy and incoherent with signs of dehydration and epigastric tenderness. Initial capillary blood glucose was 52 mg/dL. D50W 50ml intravenously was given with repeat CBG of 222 mg/dL. Arterial blood gas (ABG) showed high anion gap metabolic acidosis (pH 7.0 and anion gap of 42) with undetectable bicarbonate and elevated lactate at 17mmol/L. Serum ketones were elevated at 6mmol/L but Hba1c was normal at 4.6 %. Thus, Alcoholic Ketoacidosis was highly considered. Intravenous hydration with saline solution was instituted then shifted to D10W 125mL/hour to allow insulin infusion therapy at initial rate of 2units/hour. Sodium bicarbonate 100 mEqs was given intravenously with recovery of sensorium thereafter. Oral Vitamin B supplement was started, and two doses of Thiamine 100 mg/IV were given. Other tests showed hyperkalemia (5.28meq/L), hypochloridemia (89.7meq/L), hyperuricemia (12.74mg/dL), and hyperphosphatemia (5.8mg/dL). Serial monitoring and correction of electrolytes were done. Moreover, management integrated simultaneous referrals to other subspecialties to rule out other causes of encephalopathy, to evaluate and manage Hypertriglyceridemic Pancreatitis and Alcoholic Liver Disease, and to facilitate nutritional, psychosocial support and rehabilitation. On 2nd hour, repeat ABG showed improvement of pH to 7.3 and HCO3 to 9.80mmol/L. Lactate decreased to 12.70mmol/L. On the 17th hour, ABG showed metabolic alkalosis with resolution of ketosis hence insulin was discontinued. CBG levels for the next 24-48 hours were within normal limits. Oral feeding was supplemented with parenteral nutrition due to decreased appetite. On 48th hour, he displayed combative behavior with visual hallucinations, but there was no consent for psychiatric referral. On 72nd hour, there was spontaneous marked improvement in his behavior. He was discharged clinically stable. Conclusion: Early recognition of Alcoholic Ketoacidosis is imperative. This is an unrecognized endocrine emergency that portends good outcome with timely diagnosis and management. Treatment includes 1. adequate fluid resuscitation 2. thiamine 3. judicious use of insulin and bicarbonate 4. correction of electrolytes 5. multidisciplinary team management. Presentation: Saturday, June 17, 2023

Use of mandibular tusks as weapons in the aggressive behavior of the burrowing mayfly Rhoenanthus coreanus (Yoon and Bae, 1985) (Ephemeroptera: Potamanthidae)

In larvae of burrowing mayflies (Ephemeroidea), mandibular tusks are generally associated with burrowing and/or feeding. This study reports, for the first time, the use of mandibular tusks as weapons in the aggressive behavior of the burrowing mayfly Rhoenanthus coreanus (Yoon and Bae, 1985) (Potamanthidae). The larvae used their tusks as weapons in combat behaviors such as tusking, which was observed in 60.81% and 62.98% of the studied males and females, respectively. Most cases involved combat by tusking between females (70.45%), followed by combat between males (21.60%), and combat between male and female individuals (3.97%). Aggressive behavior was more common in female larvae with longer mandibular tusks. Positive relationships were observed between the number of cases of aggressive behavior (i.e., tusking) and the size of mandibular tusks in both male and female larvae (p < 0.001). Female larvae with large mandibular tusks (5.00 ± 0.50 mm) could use their tusks to lift their opponents in a manner similar to horned beetles. Contests typically occurred as a result of territorial conflict and served as a means to find or retain occupied shelters for feeding and hiding.

Knowledge-based and data-driven behavioral modeling techniques in engagement simulation

As knowledge and data increase in scale and complexity, it is more difficult to apply these two key assets to achieve optimal effectiveness in engagement simulation. The aim of this study was to investigate the techniques of knowledge and data integration with respect to the development of smart agents to predict accurate behaviors in tactical engagements. To reduce the complexity of combat behavior representation, with respect to the functions, we represented subject matter expert operational knowledge by proposing multiple levels of cascaded hierarchical structure, namely, the function decision tree, to increase the readability and maintainability of the behavioral model. For decision points in a behavioral model, smart agents can be trained based on data samples collected from rounds of constructive simulations which provide validated physical models and tactical principles. As a proof of concept, we constructed a simulation testbed of multi-warhead ballistic missile penetration, which generated 129,600 constructive simulations over a total of 84 h. Thereafter, we selected 5817 data samples (i.e. ~4.5% of the simulations) using an operational metric of total rewards exceeding 100. The data samples are used to train an artificial neural network and then this network is used to develop a deep reinforcement learning agent. The results revealed that the training process iterated nearly 17,000 epochs until the policy loss decreased to an acceptable low value. The smart agent increased the ratio of ballistic missile target hits by 18.96%, a significant increase when compared with the traditional rule-based behavioral model.

0657 Incidence and Features of Nightmares and Trauma Associated Sleep Disorder in U.S. Military Personnel with Sleep Disturbances

Abstract Introduction The incidence and clinical significance of nightmares is difficult to estimate due to varying criteria across studies. The Nightmare Disorder Index (NDI) is a validated measure to evaluate nightmare disorder. However, there is no measure to differentiate trauma-related nightmares compared to trauma associated sleep disorder (TSD), a unique REM parasomnia. The objectives of this study were to (1) determine the incidence of nightmare disorder and TSD in patients referred for a clinically indicated sleep evaluation, and (2) further characterize TSD. Methods All initial sleep referrals completed intake questionnaires including validated measures such as the NDI, Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI). Patients who endorsed at least weekly nightmares related to trauma, with vocalizations or disruptive nocturnal behaviors, and autonomic surges additionally received a structured clinical interview focusing on thematic content of dreams, dream enactment behavior, self-reported symptoms of autonomic hyperactivity, and, if previously treated, nightmare severity before and after therapy. Results 102 new patients completed the NDI and 56.9% (58) met criteria for probable nightmare disorder (ND). Of the 58 patients with probable ND, 13.8% (8) had symptoms consistent with TSD (7.8% of new referrals). Compared to ND patients, TSD patients were more likely to have higher ISI (24.0 ± 3.0 vs. 18.6 ± 5.6) (p=0.023) and total NDI score (15.8 ± 3.5 vs. 10.0 ± 3.7) (p&amp;lt; 0.001), but not ESS (p=0.158). Structured interview revealed all TSD patients had significant daytime distress or impairment. The nature of trauma was combat for 3 individuals, physical assault for 1, and sexual assault for 4 (one occurring while deployed). All individuals reported tachycardia secondary to nightmares and tachypnea and diaphoresis were each reported in 75% of patients. Regarding dream content, 25% endorsed accurate replay of trauma, 25% related to trauma but non-replay, and 50% mixed. For DNB, 87.5% of patients endorsed vocalization (moaning, screaming, or yelling), 87.5% endorsed movements (tossing, turning, or thrashing), and 37.5% endorsed combative behaviors (striking of bed partner). Conclusion This study reports a surprisingly high incidence of probable ND among all new sleep medicine patients. TSD appears to be a clinically distinct, more severe parasomnia compared to ND. Support (if any)

Cannabis-Based Products and Medical Propaganda: It Cuts Both Ways

Cannabis species’ historical use for relieving medical symptoms, through various preparations like smoking, edibles, ointments, balms and others, dates back over 3,000 years ago, initially in the Far East (especially India and China). Subsequent trading routes brought the herb to the Western World, where its consumption reached significant levels, leading to prohibitions in certain situations, such as in 1764 when Emperor Napoleon of France, having encountered the plant during his Egyptian campaign, observed a decrease in combative behaviour among soldiers, prompting restrictions.

Psoriatic Arthritis Flare in a Hospitalized Patient with Schizoaffective Disorder: A Case Report

Psoriasis is a known comorbid condition in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Due to the nature of these psychiatric conditions, many experience lengthy hospitalizations and self-isolate at baseline, which can make identification and management of psoriasis difficult. We report the case of a middle-aged male with a history of schizoaffective disorder and treatment-resistant psoriatic arthritis who experienced a severe flare while hospitalized. His two-month hospital stay became complicated by combative behavior and continued medication refusal, resulting in repeated seclusion events and eventual transfer to a higher acuity unit. After treatment with ixekizumab and a course of prednisone was initiated one month after admission and symptom onset, the patient’s lesions were tremendously improved along with his mood on the unit. With the improvement in his chronic pain and discomfort, the patient was able to focus on mental health recovery and rapidly approached discharge. This report highlights the importance of appropriate management of comorbid conditions, especially psoriasis in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders needing long-term hospitalization. Additionally, this case demonstrates the successful use of ixekizumab in treatment-resistant psoriasis.

From Advocacy to Activism: A Multi-Dimensional Scale of Communicative, Collective, and Combative Behaviors

Although advocacy and activism have been discussed in communication literature, are important in society, and often aid in organizational success, conceptual definitions and valid measurement of the concepts are lacking. By searching the literature, seeking two rounds of expert feedback, and employing two surveys ( N = 1,300) for scale development, this study advances a new measurement model of behavior that may be useful for future research and practice. The findings support six distinct factors of behavioral advocacy and activism, three representing advocacy and three representing activism. The behaviors are communicative, collective, and combative in nature. Implications are discussed, along with suggestions for future research.

Effects of weight divisions in time-motion of female high-level Brazilian Jiu-jitsu combat behaviors.

Coaches and psychologists can use time-motion analysis to elaborate specific interventions for female BJJ athletes, increasing specific training context and reducing unnecessary psychological and physical demands and injuries. Therefore, the present study aimed to analyze high-level BJJ female athletes in the 2020 Pan-American Games by comparing the weight categories on the time-motion analysis. The time-motion analysis (i.e., approach, gripping, attack, defensive actions, transition, mounting, guard, side control, and submissions) of 422 high-level female BJJ combats was divided and compared by weight category as follows: Rooster (n = 8), Light Feather (n = 18), Feather (n = 122), Light (n = 84), Middle (n = 74), Medium Heavy (n = 44), Heavy (n = 36), Super Heavy (n = 36), using p ≤ 0.05. The main results indicated that the Super heavyweight category [3.1 (5.8;119.9) s] had a shorter gripping time than other weight categories, p ≤ 0.05. In contrast, roosters [7.2 (3.5;64.6) s] had longer gripping, transition [14.0 (4.8;29.6) s], and attack time [76.2 (27.7, 93.2)] than the light feather, middlers, and heavier weight categories, p ≤ 0.05. These findings should be considered for the psychological interventions and training prescription.

Clinical Practice Guidelines for Assessment and Management of Patients with Substance Intoxication Presenting to the Emergency Department.

Clinical Practice Guidelines for Assessment and Management of Patients with Substance Intoxication Presenting to the Emergency Department.

ВИЯВЛЕННЯ СТИЛЬОВИХ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИК ПРОЯВУ УПРАВЛІНСЬКИХ НАВИЧОК, НЕОБХІДНИХ ОФІЦЕРАМ У БОЙОВІЙ ОБСТАНОВЦІ

The article presents the results of an empirical study of stylistic characteristics of the manifestation of management skills by officers in a combat environment. During the research, a number of personal characteristics were identified, which are most associated with a high level of management skills, which can be a prognostic indicator of the success of professional training and functioning of an officer in a combat environment. Distinguished stylistic features of the manifestation of management skills in a combat environment made it possible to identify officers of two types: universalplastic and rigid-fragmentary. They are distinguished by the adequacy of actions carried out by them in a combat environment, the completeness and quality of mastering the main groups of management skills (strength, functional plasticity, generalization), the nature of their actualization, the number and nature of errors and difficulties that are detected or experienced at various stages of activity, and as well as the connection of managerial skills with the effectiveness of activities. Based on the analysis of combat activity, it was established that the effectiveness of the implementation of management skills of officers in a combat environment is determined by a specific combination of a number of objective and subjective factors, the most important of which include: the content of the combat task; the nature of the enemy's influence; the officer's image of the combat situation, which he perceives as stimulating/neutral for starting/blocking a certain intellectual-behavioural pattern of combat behaviour; psychological readiness to act decisively in a non-standard environment; the repertoire of patterns and techniques for solving combat tasks mastered by the officer.

About this Issue

About this Issue Nicholas Rademacher, Co-editor In our lead article, Richard Gribble, CSC (Stonehill College) sheds new light on the history of the censure of Father Leonard Feeney (1897–1978), a once popular Jesuit priest whose combative behavior and instigation of controversy on the church’s doctrine of salvation led to his excommunication from the Catholic Church. After providing an overview of Feeney’s position on the church’s teaching regarding salvation, his anti-Semitic rhetoric, and his defiance of his ecclesiastical superiors that led to his excommunication, Gribble reexamines the historical record and recounts the efforts of Cardinal Humberto Medeiros of Boston to secure Feeney’s reconciliation with the church near the end of Feeney’s life. Next, Samuel Mertz (Independent Scholar) examines the life and legacy of Father Thomas Tobin (1897–1978), a once-prominent but now largely forgotten public figure in mid-twentieth-century Oregon. A champion of labor rights and Catholic social teaching, the Portland priest rose to prominence during the Second World War as a trusted mediator between unions and management in Portland. But, as Mertz reveals, his influence waned as war-time solidarity on the homefront fractured in the post-war decades. This issue also includes another installment of our ongoing feature, “Forgotten Classics.” Carol K. Coburn (Avila University) revisits the groundbreaking and consequently controversial 1963 essay, “The Local Superior as Spiritual Leader,” by Sister Annette Walters, CSJ; Leslie Woodcock Tentler (Catholic University of America) brings David Lodge’s 1980 British novel Souls and Bodies to the attention of American readers as a “neglected classic” that charts the course to a pluralistic church before and after Vatican II; Ramón A. Gutiérrez (University of Chicago) reflects on the significance of Fray Angelico Chávez’s 1954 book, La Conquistadora: The Autobiography of an Ancient Statue, which tracks the Christianization of New Mexico from the perspective of a statue of Our Lady of the Rosary; and Angela Alaimo O’Donnell (Fordham University) recovers Elizabeth Cullinan’s fiction, including two novels and two short story collections, that broke new ground by revealing the world of Irish American Catholicism during the mid-twentieth century. In this issue’s cover essay, Judy Coode commemorates the 50th anniversary of the founding of Pax Christi USA. Drawing on interviews and archival material, she documents the origins of the organization and the expansion of its understanding of the peace of Christ to include nuclear disarmament, racial justice, and economic justice for all. Copyright © 2022 American Catholic Historical Society

Clinical Reasoning: A 66-Year-Old Woman With Progressive Encephalopathy and Bilateral Hearing Loss.

A 66-year-old woman with no medical history presented to an outside hospital for an acute alteration in cognition described as wandering aimlessly, combative behavior, and incomprehensible speech that progressed over 3 days. On arrival, she had altered cognition, psychomotor agitation, and inability to follow commands, but no weakness, dysarthria, sensation loss, vision loss, or meningismus. Vital signs and laboratory studies including complete blood count, comprehensive metabolic panel, urinalysis, and urine drug screen were normal.

Albert Einstein, World of Dices and Hydrocarbon System Analysis

Albert Einstein, Caesar and others have used dices as a metaphor for risks and probabilities; indirectly reverting to the experience human kind may have with natural processes in its environment contemporarily with human evolution. It will be shown for example by concentrating on the exploration of hydrocarbons that the rules of a dice-game can be used to better understand the importance of the number of ruling parameters (dices), in this case geological parameters. Especially the Rotliegend Gas Play of the North German Basin belongs to the very complex hydrocarbon systems with more than 70 independent parameters. The Dutch Rotliegend Play for comparison can be characterized by only 10 parameters and is therefore of a simple type. Processes on earth like the formation of systems of hydrocarbon fields as well as environmental systems (e.g. river systems, lakes, islands, sedimentary basins) are subordinated to the dice of nature like in a Casino and are steered invisibly by a selection of rules of the game that one understands as natural laws. The complexity of a system as well as the variedness of its “members” that may be found in anthropogenic systems as well (different properties in thinking, self-reflection, feedback-capabilities, combative and ambitious behavior of individuals with the target to climb upwards in a ranking matrix) is decided by the number of the influencing parameters, represented by dices. Like in a dice-game the exploration of hydrocarbons is unsolvable connected to luck and bad-luck, coincidence and necessity, and to past and future.

Multiple paternity in the Asp viper

AbstractMany male reptiles maximize their reproductive success by mating with multiple females. This behaviour has often been observed in female reptiles as well, although one mating would usually be sufficient to fertilize the available female eggs. Using 13 microsatellite markers, multiple paternity (MP) was confirmed for the first time in the asp viper (Vipera aspis) in 47% of the tested clutches, with only up to two different fathers. Phenotypic characteristics (length, weight) of the mother did not influence the number of sires, and the number of young did not differ between litters with one or two sires. Males that sired offspring were larger than males that did not successfully reproduce. Excluding an exceptionally long‐distance movement (2464 m), the distance between fathers and mothers was limited (127 m ± 162). Although males exhibit notable combat behaviour during the breeding season, there was no sexual size dimorphism in the study population.