Colombian Regulations Research Articles

Hidrocarburos y cambio climático: análisis del enfoque propuesto por la Resolución 40066 de 2022

Introduction: This paper presents a legal analysis of Resolution 40066 of 2022 of the Ministry of Mines and Energy, since its implementation in Colombian regulations; the benefits and challenges for companies in the hydrocarbons sector; and its legal connection with hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation contracts. Objective: Study the legal framework, balances, challenges, and prospects of Resolution 40066 of 2022, as part of the global strategy to combat climate change in terms of control in the detection, repair of leaks, utilization, flaring, and venting of natural gas. Methodology: The methodology of the paper is the documentary analysis of national doctrine and current regulations. With these sources, the information collected in legal and specialized databases was classified and, as a result, the authors analyzed the Colombian constitutional, legislative, and regulatory context. Conclusions: The paper presents some considerations of the assembly process of the resolution with the hydrocarbon exploration and/or exploitation contracts.

Assessment of groundwater quality for human consumption and its health risks in the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia

Groundwater is the primary source of water for people living in rural areas, especially during seasons when surface water is contaminated or unavailable. In Colombia, people use groundwater as drinking water without additional treatment. In addition, there is no infrastructure for wastewater collection and sewage treatment in the region of the Middle Magdalena Valley. The current study aims to evaluate the quality of groundwater in this region to determine any potential health hazards associated with its consumption. To reach the objective, three (3) physicochemical and microbiological sampling campaigns were carried out during different hydrological periods. A total of 428 groundwater samples were analyzed for over 28 parameters. The results were compared with the water quality standards proposed by the US EPA and Colombian regulations for human consumption. The analysis revealed the presence of total and fecal coliforms in 89% and 58% of the analyzed samples, respectively, identifying them as the main contaminants in groundwater. Furthermore, the pH levels did not meet the standards set by the US EPA in 33.8% of the cases and by Colombian regulations in 31.02%. Additionally, 32.8%, 17.6%, 14.3%, and 10.9% of the samples failed to meet the established thresholds for apparent color, magnesium, iron, and nitrates, respectively, under both standards. Moreover, only the analyses of selenium, mercury, and zinc complied with the quality standards under both regulatory frameworks. Based on the Colombian Drinking-Water Quality Risk Index (CDWQRI-IRCA), the risk associated with water quality meant for human consumption was assessed. The results showed that over 84% of the samples analyzed posed a high risk to human health, 4.6% posed a medium risk, 5.5% posed a low risk, and only 5.7% posed no risk at all. Additionally, official mortality statistics for children under four years old were reviewed, which revealed two deaths in 2019 due to Acute Diarrheal Disease (ADD) caused by consumption of contaminated water. Therefore, it is crucial to implement water treatment systems, establish aqueducts in rural areas, and conduct rigorous and systematic monitoring of drinking water to ensure it is safe for human consumption. It is also important to track morbidity and mortality rates associated with water consumption.

Regime de grupo corporativo na Colômbia: comparação da responsabilidade subsidiária na Coreia do Sul e no Japão

This paper develops a comparative law exercise between the legal systems of Colombia, South Korea and Japan in relation to the regulation of corporate groups, for which the research object of this paper focuses on the legal problem of whether the current Colombian regulation on subsidiary liability favours the parent companies over the controlled companies in the event of insolvency of the latter. To this end, the concept of business groups, Chaebol and Keiretsu is explored in order to delimit the object of research and determine their main similarities, such as control, the search for common objectives and a hierarchical structure, as well as their differences, such as the cross-shareholding schemes of the Chaebol and Keiretsu, and the influence of family structures in decision-making; Finally, subsidiary liability is addressed, where, based on the regulation of business groups in Colombia, the Chaebols in South Korea and the Keiretsu in Japan, it is observed that Colombian legislation is much more restrictive in terms of business groups than the regulations in South Korea and Japan.

Technical and Financial Analysis for the Implementation of Small-scale Self-generation Projects, based on Grid-Tied Photovoltaic Solar Energy, for Residential Users under Colombian Regulations

The study focuses on integrating non-conventional renewable energy sources into Colombia's power system. The regulatory framework allows small prosumers to trade energy surpluses with grid operators. The research analyzes the financial feasibility of implementing photovoltaic systems for residential users. Technical aspects governing energy production and implementation costs are examined. Colombian residential users, divided into six socioeconomic strata, undergo individual analysis based on their energy rates and consumption patterns. The study area is Bucaramanga, known for intermediate solar potential. Precise cost estimates for implementing photovoltaic systems that meet user energy requirements are provided. Financial viability indicators (NPV, IRR, Payback Time) are evaluated for three scenarios: existing energy prices, 50% government financing, and a 10% tariff reduction due to government intervention. Results show financial viability for strata 4, 5, and 6, but not for strata 1, 2, and 3. Government intervention can make strata 2 and 3 feasible. Lowering the kWh price adversely impacts the project's financial feasibility for all strata, particularly the lower-income ones. The study is valuable for potential investors and policymakers seeking to promote photovoltaic systems in the residential sector. It provides insights into economic viability and helps develop effective policies for Colombia's sustainable energy transition.

Study on the Use of Coal Bottom Ash as a Raw Material Replacement for the Production of Clay Bricks

Context: Masonry bricks are one of the most widely used building materials in the world, which leads to the overexploitation of its raw materials. Its production consumes a large amount of energy and has a large environmental footprint. The clay brick industry can add residues to its raw materials; among those reported are tea processing waste, brick waste, paper industry residues, waste from coffee mills, and coal ashes. Method: Bottom coal ashes were characterized by X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, electronic microscopy, and particle size analysis. In addition, their density and loss on ignition were determined. The incorporation of ashes in the elaboration of clay bricks was evaluated, with sand replacement percentages of 0, 3, 5, and 7%. Finally, the physical and mechanical properties of the bricks were evaluated. Results: The water absorption and apparent porosity increased, while the compressive strength and bulk density decreased with the incorporation of ash in the brick samples, except for those with a 3% replacement, which showed a better performance in the evaluated properties. Conclusions: Coal bottom ashes have great potential in the manufacturing of clay bricks. The findings of this study indicate that, by incorporating up to 3% ashes, bricks can be obtained which comply with the Colombian regulations.

Effect of storage on the quality of Andean blackberry (Rubus glaucus Benth) powder biofortified with Lacticaseibacillus casei ATCC393

The quality of food depends on physicochemical, bromatological, and morphological characteristics that can suffer alterations during processing and storage. This research assessed, through a completely randomized factorial design: storage time (0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180 days) and temperature (15, 25, 35 ºC) effect on the stability of blackberry powder biofortified with Lacticaseibacillus casei ATCC393 under atmospheric and nitrogen packaging conditions. The product shelf-life was defined by the microorganism viability according to the Colombian regulations (>106 CFU/g), which is affected by temperature and time for each packaging. The samples color was maintained without significant changes and there were small variations in moisture, solubility, apparent density, and morphology of the powders. The best storage conditions were obtained at 15 ºC, with a durability of 4 months; a viability of 6.7 ± 0.3 and 6.3 ± 0.3 Log CFU/g was achieved for atmospheric and nitrogen packaging, respectively. The stability of the other properties was preserved during storage.

Discharges of 131I coming from hospitals and outpatients in the sanitary sewage system of Bogotá

An integral sampling methodology was applied to the sewerage network of Bogotá by inspecting wells that carry sanitary water from institutions that use 131I in nuclear medicine treatments to determine the areas of the city with activity of this radioisotope, which may reach the Salitre wastewater treatment plant and are subsequently discharged into the Bogotá river. The areas evaluated included the location of authorized institutions that use 131I in nuclear medicine and their patients. A total of 13 wells were sampled in the city, each with three samples, and the characterization of the samples was performed using the technique of high-resolution gamma spectrometry with Ge-HP detector and covered the relevant aspects that must be considered to make a complete characterization of the presence of the isotope studied. Among these factors are the season of the year with precipitation, pipe flow, location of the nuclear medicine facilities, existence of decay systems, number of rooms for treatment with 131I and water trajectory through the sewage system.Based on the results obtained, it was possible to identify potential sources of radioisotope 131I that are exceeding the discharge limits established by Colombian regulations (i.e., 19 Bq/L at the discharge point). From the 13 wells sampled, radioisotope 131I was detected in 11 of them. From the assessed wells, 3 were connected to facilities in which activity was found to be above the discharges limit allowed in Colombia for the sanitary sewer.This research complements the study on traceability of 131I in Bogotá-Colombia that begins with its importation by radiopharmacies who distribute it to hospital patients and outpatients, continuing its trajectory through management systems or homes to the sewage system of Bogotá, field that had not been studied. It allows inferring the degree of compliance with Colombian regulations and serves as a basis for evaluating regulatory changes in the levels of 131I dispensing in water networks. Further studies are required to assess the potential impacts of these materials on the local population.

Drone system for risk management

This article is a product of the project "Estudio para identificar las capacidades tecnológicas en las pymes de la Villa de San Diego de Ubaté", developed by the Creing seedbed of the systems engineering program of the Universidad de Cundinamarca Seccional Ubaté during the year 2022. Objective: To develop an assistance system using unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) to support the Fire Department in risk management in the Villa de San Diego Ubaté. Method: Research conducted around the use of different programming languages for the creation of the website, trying to maintain the optimization of, where the user can find all the information about the service, likewise, is included mathematical and physical research with which you can analyze the flight characteristics according to the properties of the drone. Results: Mathematical and physical research applied to the analysis of the flight characteristics is evidenced, taking into account the properties and functionalities of the drone.[1] and the geographical details of the municipality of Ubaté-Cundinamarca, a bibliographic inquiry where the history, classification and Colombian regulations are supported, as well as the planning and the different tools and activities that are developed for the achievement of the project. Conclusion: The use of drones in different fields has intensified in recent years, however, although they are very useful for quick access to areas with difficulties or precarious situations, drone systems have not been implemented that allow surveillance and attention to these situations in a timely manner in the northern area of the department of Cundinamarca. Limitation of the study: this project is focused on the study and analysis for the municipality of Villa de San Diego de Ubaté due to the relevance of the sector and the study, as well as the ease of information gathering.

Genetically modified agriculture. A bioethical evaluation of a case from Colombian

<p>Transgenic technology promises to eradicate hunger and poverty worldwide, among other sustainable development goals, and as a result, its acceptance is increasing. However, there are perspectives that highlight the challenges raised by such expansion. This paper is a reflection on a study effort on the bioethical consequences of using transgenic technology in agriculture in Colombia. The goal is to prove that this adoption poses a bioethical danger. The paper, on the one hand, addresses the problem that arises from confronting arguments for and against the adoption of this technology, while also noting the absolute importance of the economic aspect in the provision of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and the general difficulties of Colombian national regulations regarding GMO control and surveillance. Finally, it discusses the bioethical implications of adoption, beginning with the illusion of a transformational technology and progressing via the political will of the government to its eventual delivery to consumers.</p>

3D Printing of Hybrid Cements Based on High Contents of Powders from Concrete, Ceramic and Brick Waste Chemically Activated with Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4)

This article evaluates the synthesis, characterization and 3D printing of hybrid cements based on high (70%) contents of powders from concrete waste (CoW), ceramic waste (CeW) and red clay brick waste (RCBW) from construction and demolition waste. For the synthesis of the hybrid cements, 30% (by weight) of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was added. Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) (4%) was used as a chemical activator. The effect of the liquid/solid ratio on the properties in the fresh state of the mixes was studied by means of minislump, flowability index, and buildability tests. The compressive strength was evaluated at 3, 7, 28 and 90 days of curing at room temperature (≈25 °C), obtaining strengths of up to 30.7 MPa (CoW), 37.0 MPa (CeW) and 33.2 MPa (RCBW) with an L/S ratio of 0.30. The results obtained allowed selecting the CoW 0.30, CeW 0.33 and RCBW 0.38 mixes as optimal for carrying out 3D printing tests on a laboratory scale, successfully printing elements with good print quality, adequate buildability, and compressive strength (CoW 0.30 = 18.2 MPa, CeW 0.33 = 27.7 MPa and RCBW 0.38 = 21.7 MPa) higher than the structural limit (≥17.5 MPa) established for concrete by Colombian Regulations for Earthquake Resistant Construction (NSR-10).

The Protection of the Capacity for Resilience in the Provision of Drinking Water from Hybrid Environmental Policy Instruments

The use of hybrid environmental policy instruments is an open research topic, particularly in the case of water resources protection. We analyzed the influence of hybrids between command-and-control regulation (CAC) and environmental taxes where the body of water’s capacity for resilience and drinking water supply are critically affected by pollution accumulation over time. We used a general equilibrium model in which it is assumed that a representative company pollutes water bodies with its production and can use pollution abatement technologies to comply with environmental regulations. These water bodies are used by a public utility that provides drinking water to the economy. This paper focuses on the review of the Colombian CAC environmental regulation, which moved from controlling a percentage of pollution to defining specific amounts of pollutants discharged, and its interaction with an environmental tax, which makes it a hybrid policy. Although the new CAC is stricter in principle, we conclude that for different values of the model parameters, a hybrid environmental policy requires periodic revision of pollutant discharge limits as well as a complementary environmental tax that approximates the Pigouvian tax to ensure water bodies’ resilience.

Analysis of the Capacity of the Fenton Process for the Treatment of Polluted Wastewater from the Leather Dyeing Industry.

In this work, the capacity of the Fenton oxidation process for the degradation of color and organic matter contained in the wastewater generated in the leather dyeing stage (WWDS) of an industrial tannery was evaluated. The wastewater characteristics included, among others, high toxicity (lethal concentration for Artemia salina, 24 h test, 50% of population = 93.71 ppm), high dye concentration (36 mg/L, yellow color), high chromium concentration (3.34 mg/L), and low biodegradability index (BOD5/COD ratio = 0.083). From an experimental design, the response surface methodology, and the multiobjective optimization analysis, the following optimal operating conditions were established: initial pH = 3.15, [Fe2+] = 0.981 mM, and [H2O2] = 5.38 mM. After 10 min of oxidation (determined from kinetic studies), it reached approximately 97% decolorization, COD reduction of approximately 82%, and TOC mineralization of approximately 92%. A synergistic effect of Fenton's reagents for TOC removal (S TOC = 0.8) and decolorization (S CN = 0.28) of the WWDS under study was confirmed experimentally. An increase in the biodegradability index, to a value of approximately 0.3, was confirmed. The cost of the treatment was estimated at 0.0112 USD/m3. Thus, the Fenton oxidation process allowed compliance with current Colombian environmental regulations and considerably improved the biodegradability and toxicity characteristics of the studied industrial effluent. It can be considered as an efficient alternative, easy to carry out on an industrial batch scale, and economically viable for the treatment of wastewater from the leather dyeing stage of an industrial tannery.

Comparison between a traditional Colombian Structural Design and the Use of Viscous-Type Energy Damping Systems (2021)

This paper compares a traditional Colombian structural design to the same structure with viscous-type energy dampers, considering both structural behavior and construction costs. To this effect, a building was designed: first, in accordance with the Colombian Seismic-Resistant Construction Regulations (NSR-10); and then according to the recommendations of American Society of Civil Engineers with regard to damping systems. Finally, the quantities and construction costs were calculated. As a result, an unconventional structure was obtained which was more expensive than a traditionally designed building. Still, said structure had less cross-sections, stresses, and displacements. The above demonstrates that, while the initial cost of this method may be higher, the extra cost can be offset when an earthquake occurs, as the building has better earthquake resistance.

Optimización de la rigidez equivalente en estructuras de uno y dos pisos sometidas a cargas de techos verdes

Desde una perspectiva lineal y estática, el aumento de los desplazamientos de una estructura debido a la implementación de un techo verde podría ser contrarrestado con el incremento de la rigidez de la estructura. En este artículo se plantea el uso del algoritmo de evolución diferencial para optimizar la rigidez equivalente de una estructura de uno y dos pisos de altura, variando la carga de techo verde bajo el análisis de fuerza horizontal equivalente en la ciudad de Bogotá. A través del software MATLAB se programa y acopla el algoritmo de optimización y la metodología de análisis matricial de estructuras aporticadas tridimensionales sujetas al cumplimiento de la distorsión máxima de piso propuesta por la normativa de construcción colombiana. Un incremento máximo en la rigidez equivalente de 19.25% y 57.80% (estructuras de un piso), y de 11.12% y 32.97% (estructuras de dos pisos) para pesos de techos verdes de 100 kg/m2 y 300 kg/m2 respectivamente, es necesaria para cumplir requerimientos normativos. Se espera que esta investigación sirva como punto de partida para generar soluciones constructivas a la implementación de techos verdes en estructuras de uno y dos pisos en la ciudad de Bogotá.

Implementation of Environmental Monitoring Programs in Food Processing Plants in Colombia

To prevent cross contamination of food, in those environments with microbial sensitivity, it is suggested to designing an environmental monitoring program (PMA) in food processing plants. The safety control is given by monitoring raw materials and product processing; however, environmental monitoring in the plant, process areas, surroundings and anything that may cause cross contamination is ignored. In the current context of food exports, Colombian food producers face international regulations such as the FDA's FSMA (Food Safety Modernization Law), whose purpose is for the industry to use measures to prevent contamination in food. The methodology for the design of the guide was carried out in 4 phases: bibliometric review, a survey of requirements for food processing plants, design of sampling plans and creation of the manual for environmental monitoring programs. The analysis of results is a documentary and procedural guide with: logistical, microbiological and chemical requirements for the characterization of food risks in the plant; a sampling plan according to the requirements established in the food industry, according to its classification by zones and a work methodology with the plan. The implementation of this improvement plan will increase the quality of the products, making it new since standardized protocols are established, which can easily be executed in any dairy industry.

The Effect of Forest Fire Events on Air Quality: A Case Study of Northern Colombia

This work presents an analysis of fire events recorded in Isla Salamanca Natural Park and their impact on the air quality in the district of Barranquilla, with an emphasis on 2020 due to the increase in the number of ha burned by forest fires that year. The analysis was based on the data provided by the environmental authority for 2015–2020. The average number of ha burned in 2020 was 50% (events recorded since 2015), with a total area of fires corresponding to 256.9 ha, which is of concern considering the ecological importance of the park and its proximity to the district of Barranquilla, Colombia. The study evaluated the spatial–temporal distributions of forest fires and their possible direct effects on air quality. For 2020, it was found that the maximum hourly measurements of the Tres Ave Marias station for particulate matter less than 2.5 (135.013 µg/m3) corresponded to the recorded event that occurred in June 2020, whereas those of the Móvil station for PM10 (263.98 µg/m3) and PM2.5 (278.7 µg/m3) corresponded to the events of 28 June 2020, and 9 August 2020. These concentrations were higher than the standard values of the average maximum limits for 24 h established in the current Colombian regulations, and both events coincided with fire events reported by the environmental authorities, where a total of 249 ha of Isla Salamanca Natural Park were burned. These things considered, it was evident that the Policía station had the highest concentrations of pollutants on average.

A postmortem study of patients vaccinated for SARS-CoV-2 in Colombia

Introduction and objectiveA new coronavirus produces a disease designated as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Vaccination against COVID-19 has resulted in decreased mortality. Postmortems of vaccinated patients play an important part in the forensic analysis of adverse effects after vaccination, which is essential for determining its efficacy and security. The main objective of this study was to describe the results of autopsies of patients vaccinated for SARS-CoV-2 carried out in two major centers in Colombia. Materials and methodsA descriptive cross-sectional study of 121 autopsies was performed following Colombian regulations in two main hospitals in Bogotá, Colombia, between March 1st and April 31st, 2021. Results118 of the 121 patients (97.52%) had been vaccinated with CoronaVac (Sinovac); only 3 had received other vaccines. Sudden cardiac death was the leading cause of death, with pulmonary embolism another critical finding. No relation between the cause of death and vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 was found. ConclusionsA clinical autopsy is a vital for an accurate post-mortem diagnosis. Any relation between the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine and the cause of death should be carefully studied in order to provide the general public with evidence-based information about the safety of the vaccination.

A Coagulation Process Combined with a Multi-Stage Filtration System for Drinking Water Treatment: An Alternative for Small Communities

As set out in the Sustainable Development Goals, it is necessary to achieve universal and equitable access to safe drinking water services for all the world’s population. Appropriate water treatment alternatives for rural areas should be prioritised to achieve this goal. In this work, a simplified drinking water treatment system (SDWTS), which has great potential for application in small communities and rural areas, was evaluated on a pilot scale for turbidity and apparent colour removal using synthetic raw water. The SDWTS integrates Upflow Gravel Filter in Layers (UGFL) and Rapid Sand Filter (RSF) with previous coagulation. This evaluation was carried out using a 23 factorial experiment, with the factors: type of water, type of coagulant and flow. The factorial design showed that the SDWTS had the highest turbidity removal efficiencies (>98.7%) with type II (20 NTU) water and PACl coagulant, while flow rate had no significant effect on turbidity removal. Under optimal operating conditions (type II water, PACl and 1.0 m3/d), the SDWTS produces treated water that meets the standards required by Colombian regulations and World Health Organisation recommendations for drinking water, concerning the variables: turbidity, apparent colour, total coliforms, E. coli, pH, electrical conductivity and Al. The SDWTS maintained its capacity to produce potable water when evaluated with the increased operating flow (up to 3.0 m3/d) and raw water turbidity (up to 50 NTU). The SDWTS can be an efficient and innovative alternative for water treatment, and its implementation in small communities can contribute to equitable access to drinking water.

Theoretical analysis of waste cooking oil rejuvenator in reclaimed asphalt for sustainable hot asphalt mix preparation at the Área Metropolitana de Bucaramanga

Reusing reclaimed asphalt pavements (RAPs) provides economic, social, and environmental benefits. To improve the performance of these materials, rejuvenating agents such as waste cooking oil (WCO) have been implemented. The annual amounts of RAP and WCO available in the Área Metropolitana de Bucaramanga (AMB) were calculated to be 32 thousand and 22 thousand tons per year, respectively. Subsequently, international standards were reviewed and compared with Colombian regulations to establish a methodology to determine the appropriate percentage of WCO to add to RAP for hot asphalt mix preparation. The authors suggest investigating WCO levels from 3% to 6% and selecting the percentage that reestablishes the penetration grade (INV-E-706-13), softening point (INV-E-712-13), and viscosity (INV-E-717 -13) of asphalt binder. For hot asphalt mix preparation, the authors propose using the Marshall method and determining the appropriate percentage of asphalt according to stability and flow tests (INV-E-748-13), percent air voids (INV-E-736-13), and bulk density (INV-E-733-13).3).

Seasonal and Spatial Variations in the Presence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Rural Drinking Water Supply Systems in Different Municipalities of Antioquia, Colombia

This study evaluated the seasonal and spatial variations in the presence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in rural drinking water supply systems of different municipalities of Antioquia. The municipalities evaluated were Envigado, Caldas, Sabaneta, La Estrella, Itagüi, Bello, Barbosa, Copacabana, and Girardota, located in the department of Antioquia, Colombia. The experimentation was carried out over 9 sampling campaigns in the period between July 2019 and November 2020. This period encompassed the two seasons presented in Colombia: dry and wet. Each municipality included in this study has a conventional basic drinking water treatment system (DWTS) which includes sand trap, rapid filtration, and chlorination. The results showed good removal efficiencies of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in the DWTS evaluated. However, evaluation of other characteristics of water quality and of the water quality risk index for human consumption (IRCA) showed concerning water quality conditions in the rural drinking water systems supply. The prevailing risk levels of the drinking water are medium, high, or non-viable sanitary, which means the population is supplied with water that does not meet the minimum quality criteria established by Colombian regulations.