Battery Of Cognitive Tests Research Articles

Development of a selective estrogen β‐receptor phytoestrogen formulation – PhytoSERM – for the reduction of Alzheimer’s risk and relief of menopausal symptoms in women: a phase 2 randomized clinical trial framework

AbstractBackgroundThe greatest risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are age, APOɛ4 allele and female sex. The estimated lifetime risk for AD is 19.5% for women compared to 10.3% in men. Accumulating evidence points to life‐time estrogen exposure as a protective factor against cognitive decline and AD in women, and to the menopause transition as a trigger for an existing AD predisposition. Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) is effective for sustaining neurological health, but fear of breast cancer is the principal reason menopausal women reject it. Instead, women utilize over the counter products labeled as natural and considered to be safer. Thus, to attain brain protection and address breast protection we developed a rationally designed combination of select ERβ‐selective phytoestrogens that promote brain health to reduce AD risk without increasing breast cell proliferation.MethodA total of 100 participants, 50 per treatment arm, will be enrolled. Eligible participants are woman, 45‐60 years, peri or post‐menopausal (last menstrual period completed ≥ 60 days and ≤ 4 years), MoCA≥22, and experiencing ≥7 hot flashes per day. Participants will be randomized to 50 mg of PhytoSERM or placebo (orally, once‐per‐day) for a 24‐week period. FDG‐PET scans will be conducted at baseline and 24 weeks. Cognitive measures and clinical ratings will be assessed. Hot flashes will be measured both subjectively with a diary and objectively with a digital wristband measuring electrodermal activity.ResultPrimary endpoint is change from baseline to 24 weeks in regional brain glucose metabolism standardized uptake value ratio (SUVR). Secondary outcome measures include cognitive test battery scores, hot flash score and clinical ratings scores. Exploratory measures will include MRI brain volumes, fractional anisotropy, quantitative anisotropy, functional connectivity, and cerebral blood perfusion.ConclusionHerein we present a phase 2 proof‐of‐concept framework to assess the efficacy of PhytoSERM as a potential non‐pharmacologic therapeutic to improve cognitive health and reduce menopausal symptoms. Results from this study will validate previous findings that indicate that PhytoSERM is a safe alternative to hormone therapy and has the potential to sustain neurological health during the menopausal transition.

Digital and plasma biomarkers for an early diagnosis of Mild Cognitive Impairment and prodromal Alzheimer’s disease

AbstractBackgroundThe application of blood‐based biomarkers for the identification of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and the development of novel digital technologies as cognitive screening tests are critical to moving toward a reliable, more accessible early diagnosis. Our aim was to evaluate the diagnostic performance of a machine learning‐based cognitive assessment known as Altoida’s digital neuro‐signature (DNS) in patients with non‐degenerative mild cognitive impairment (ndMCI) and MCI due to AD (prodromal AD) and its association with CSF and plasma biomarkers.MethodAltoida’s MCI‐DNS is a 10‐minute cognitive test battery evaluating activities of daily living via motoric and augmented reality tasks. The test consists of placing and finding virtual objects in a real environment and its final score is obtained by weighting multi‐modal digital data features, such as hands’ micro‐movements, speed, reaction times, or navigation trajectories. We included 81 participants, classified according to their clinical status and CSF AD biomarker profile as: cognitively unimpaired controls, CTR (n = 10; age = 68.5±5.9; MMSE = 29.4±1.1), ndMCI (n = 25; age = 67.6±7.2; MMSE = 26.9±1.9) and prodromal AD (n = 46; age = 70.8±4.9; MMSE = 24.3±3.3). We further investigated a subsample of participants classified according to their plasma pTau181 levels as measured by SiMoA [cutoff = 1.37 pg/mL (Sarto et al., 2022)]: pTau181 negative (n = 27; age = 68.5±5.9; MMSE = 26.9±2.7) or pTau181 positive (n = 30; age = 70.3±5.5; MMSE = 24.1±3.7).ResultSignificant differences were found in MCI‐DNS scores between CTR group and ndMCI (F = 23.5; p<0.001) and prodromal AD (F = 114.4; p<0.001) groups. Also, ndMCI showed higher MCI‐DNS scores than the prodromal AD group (F = 4.53; p<0.05, Fig. 1). ROC curves showed an excellent diagnostic accuracy of the MCI‐DNS in the discrimination between CTR vs. ndMCI (AUC = 0.879) and CTR vs. prodromal AD (AUC = 0.975) (Fig. 1). Further analyses showed differences in MCI‐DNS scores between CSF Aβ42 negative and CSF Aβ42 positive (F = 18.9; p<0.001; Fig. 2), as well as between plasma pTau181 negative and plasma pTau181 positive (F = 6.16; p<0.01; Fig. 2). Finally, MCI DNS scores significantly correlated with CSF Aβ42, CSF Aβ42/pTau ratio, CSF neurofilament‐light chain (NfL) and plasma pTau181 concentrations (Fig. 3).ConclusionAltoida’s MCI‐DNS test allows excellent discrimination between CTR and patients with MCI. MCI‐DNS scores significantly correlate with CSF AD core biomarkers, biomarkers of neurodegeneration and blood‐based biomarkers (i.e., plasma pTau181).

Correction of symptoms of Huntington disease by genistein through FOXO3-mediated autophagy stimulation

ABSTRACT Huntington disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a mutation in the HTT gene. The expansion of CAG triplets leads to the appearance of misfolded HTT (huntingtin) forming aggregates and leading to impairment of neuronal functions. Here we demonstrate that stimulation of macroautophagy/autophagy by genistein (4′,5,7-trihydroxyisoflavone or 5,7-dihydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4 H-1-benzopyran-4-one) caused a reduction of levels of mutated HTT in brains of HD mice and correction of their behavior as assessed in a battery of cognitive, anxiety and motor tests, even if the compound was administered after symptoms had developed in the animals. Biochemical and immunological parameters were also improved in HD mice. Studies on molecular mechanisms of genistein-mediated stimulation of autophagy in HD cells indicated the involvement of the FOXO3-related pathway. In conclusion, treatment with genistein stimulates the autophagy process in the brains of HD mice, leading to correction of symptoms of HD, suggesting that it might be considered as a potential drug for this disease. Combined with a very recently published report indicating that impaired autophagy may be a major cause of neurodegenerative changes, these results may indicate the way to the development of effective therapeutic approaches for different neurodegenerative diseases by testing compounds (or possibly combinations of compounds) capable of stimulating autophagy and/or unblocking this process. Abbreviations: CNS: central nervous system; EPM: elevated plus-maze; GOT1/ASPAT: glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase 1, soluble; GPT/ALAT/ALT: glutamic pyruvic transaminase, soluble; HD: Huntington disease; HTT: huntingtin; IL: interleukin; mHTT: mutant huntingtin; NOR: novel object recognition; MWM: Morris water maze; OF: open field; ROS: reactive oxygen species; TNF: tumor necrosis factor

The effects of Vagal Nerve Stimulation on time perception in epilepsy patients

In this study, it was aimed to investigate the effects of switching off stimulation on time perception in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy who underwent Vagal Nerve Stimulation (VNS). In accordance with the literature, a cognitive battery of tests for motor timing and perceptual timing was utilized. Computerized time perception tests; Paced Motor Timing Test, Duration Discrimination Test, Temporal Reproduction Test, and Time Estimation Test were administered to the patients while VNS was on and off. A total of 14 patients who met the inclusion criteria of 23 VNS patients followed in the Epilepsy Outpatient Clinic were included in the study. In the Temporal Reproduction Test, for time durations of 1000 ms (ms), 2000 ms, 3000 ms, 4000 ms, and 5000 ms the comparison of reported time values between VNS on and VNS off yielded respective p values; p = 0.73, p = 0.03, p = 0.176, p = 0.418, p = 0,873. The reported time is thus significantly shorter only for 2000 ms when the VNS was on. Positive effect of VNS on attention, alertness and focusing are expected to cause acceleration of the internal clock resulting in perceiving time running slower than actual. In our study, it was concluded that the internal clock runs faster when the VNS is on, and time is perceived as running slower than it actually is. This result can also be accepted as an indirect indicator of increased attention in the period when VNS is on.

Milk fat globule membrane-enriched milk improves episodic memory: A randomized, parallel, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in older adults

Cognitive decline is one of the most important consequences of aging and pharmacological therapies had been largely unsuccessful. Other strategies include the use of functional foods to reduce the burden of cognitive decline. The MFGM is an important source of polar lipids and glycoproteins that decline in the aging brain. We have developed a milk drink fortified with MFGM (MFGM-M) as a dietary supplement and studied it in a randomized clinical pilot study. Forty-four > 65-year-old healthy or mildly cognitively impaired subjects received MFGM-M or control milk (CM) for 14 weeks, during which they underwent a battery of cognitive tests. Lipidomic analyzes were also performed. The female participants showed improvement in episodic memory, the ability to recall events in our lives. It is conceivable that any intervention should be started before clinical symptoms manifest, as a preventive measure against cognitive decline. Future long-term studies may shed further light on this point.

Domestication and breeding objective did not shape the interpretation of physical and social cues in goats (Capra hircus)

Artificial selection by humans, either through domestication or subsequent selection for specific breeding objectives, drives changes in animal cognition and behaviour. However, most previous cognitive research comparing domestic and wild animals has focused on companion animals such as canids, limiting any general claims about the effects of artificial selection by humans. Using a cognitive test battery, we investigated the ability of wild goats (non-domestic, seven subjects), dwarf goats (domestic, not selected for milk production, 15 subjects) and dairy goats (domestic, selected for high milk yield, 18 subjects) to utilise physical and social cues in an object choice task. To increase the heterogeneity of our test samples, data for domestic goats were collected by two experimenters at two research stations (Agroscope; Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology). We did not find performance differences between the three groups in the cognitive test battery for either physical or social cues. This indicates that for a domestic non-companion animal species, domestication and selection for certain breeding objectives did not measurably shape the physical and cognitive skills of goats.

Feasibility and acceptability of a remote, hands-free cognitive battery for adults with traumatic spinal cord injury.

To evaluate the acceptability and feasibility of testing the cognitive abilities of adults with traumatic spinal cord injury (TSCI) via teleconference. Data were collected prospectively at two study sites from 75 adults living with TSCI. Participants completed a series of self-report measures via an online survey platform, in addition to a brief battery of cognitive testing administered via audio-video teleconference. Modifications were made to select measures to allow for hands-free administration of all tasks. Feasibility was demonstrated by a 97.4% completion rate among the 77 participants who began the cognitive testing and approximately normal distributions for nearly all cognitive testing variables examined. No ceiling or floor effects were observed across cognitive testing variables. Review of acceptability ratings indicated that participants found this approach to cognitive testing to be highly acceptable. Our findings provide evidence for the feasibility and acceptability of administering cognitive testing via teleconference to adults living with TSCI. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Within-Person Test Score Distributions: How Typical Is "Normal"?

We evaluated within-person variability across a cognitive test battery by analyzing the shape of the distribution of each individual's scores within a battery of tests. We hypothesized that most healthy adults would produce test scores that are normally distributed around their own personal battery-wide, within-person (wp) mean. Using cross-sectional data from 327 neurologically healthy adults, we computed each person's mean, standard deviation, skew, and kurtosis for 30 neuropsychological measures. Raw scores were converted to T-scores using three degrees of calibration: (a) none, (b) age, and (c) age, sex, race, education, and estimated premorbid IQ. Regardless of calibration, no participant showed abnormal within-person skew (wpskew) and only 10 (3.1%) to 16 (4.9%) showed wpkurtosis greater than 2. If replicated in other samples and measures, these findings could illuminate how healthy individuals are endowed with different cognitive abilities and provide the foundation for a new method of inference in clinical neuropsychology.

Remote data collection speech analysis in people at risk for Alzheimer's disease dementia: usability and acceptability results.

Digital cognitive assessments are gathering importance for the decentralized remote clinical trials of the future. Before including such assessments in clinical trials, they must be tested to confirm feasibility and acceptability with the intended participant group. This study presents usability and acceptability data from the Speech on the Phone Assessment (SPeAk) study. Participants (N = 68, mean age 70.43 years, 52.9% male) provided demographic data and completed baseline and 3-month follow-up phone based assessments. The baseline visit was administered by a trained researcher and included a spontaneous speech assessment and a brief cognitive battery (immediate and delayed recall, digit span, and verbal fluency). The follow-up visit repeated the cognitive battery which was administered by an automatic phone bot. Participants were randomized to receive their cognitive test results acer the final or acer each study visit. Participants completed acceptability questionnaires electronically acer each study visit. There was excellent retention (98.5%), few technical issues (n = 5), and good interrater reliability. Participants rated the assessment as acceptable, confirming the ease of use of the technology and their comfort in completing cognitive tasks on the phone. Participants generally reported feeling happy to receive the results of their cognitive tests, and this disclosure did not cause participants to feel worried. The results from this usability and acceptability analysis suggest that completing this brief battery of cognitive tests via a telephone call is both acceptable and feasible in a midlife-to-older adult population in the United Kingdom, living at risk for Alzheimer's disease.

Feasibility of a novel neurofeedback system: a parallel randomized single-blinded pilot study

Neurocognitive assessment tools have been proposed to optimize, maintain, and improve perceptual-cognitive performance. Here, we investigated the feasibility and efficacy of a novel neurofeedback system, neuroMoon (nM), on cognitive abilities compared with one of the most popular perceptual-cognitive training (PCT) tools both in sports and rehabilitation called NeuroTracker (NT). Thirty-one young athletes performed a comprehensive battery of cognitive tests from the Vienna Test System before and after a 12-session computer-based cognitive training program using nM (n = 11, age 22.6 ± 3.8 years), nM sham (CON, n = 10, age 20.3 ± 1.2 years) or NT (n = 10, age 20.5 ± 1.7 years) device. A series of repeated-measures ANOVA was performed to detect changes in cognitive abilities in response to the training. Participants had faster median reaction time in both the color-naming and word-reading conditions of the Stroop test (all p < 0.005), regardless of group. Regarding the task switching test, statistical analysis indicated faster working time and mean reaction time of the incongruent stimuli, repetition task, and shifting task (all p < 0.005), nevertheless, these changes were also regardless of group. In addition, we found fewer omitted (pre: 17.5 ± 8.3, post: 6.4 ± 1.5, d = 1.311) and more correct (pre: 261.6 ± 36.1, post: 278.6 ± 38.7, d = − 1.020) post-intervention answers in the determination test, regardless of group. Finally, participants in each group performed the digit span backward test with larger post (6.42 ± 1.54) vs. pre (5.55 ± 1.43) scores following the PCT (d = − 0.801). Overall, PCT with nM as compared with NT induced similar results in cognitive abilities suggesting its potential to be used to achieve and maintain better mental performance. However, considering that the sham stimulation also induced similar improvements in cognitive abilities, future studies should clearly determine the cognitive measures that could benefit from NF training.

Large-scale recording of neuronal activity in freely-moving mice at cellular resolution

Current methods for recording large-scale neuronal activity from behaving mice at single-cell resolution require either fixing the mouse head under a microscope or attachment of a recording device to the animal’s skull. Both of these options significantly affect the animal behavior and hence also the recorded brain activity patterns. Here, we introduce a different method to acquire snapshots of single-cell cortical activity maps from freely-moving mice using a calcium sensor called CaMPARI. CaMPARI has a unique property of irreversibly changing its color from green to red inside active neurons when illuminated with 400 nm light. We capitalize on this property to demonstrate cortex-wide activity recording without any head fixation, tethering, or attachment of a miniaturized device to the mouse’s head. Multiple cortical regions were recorded while the mouse was performing a battery of behavioral and cognitive tests. We identified task-dependent activity patterns across motor and somatosensory cortices, with significant differences across sub-regions of the motor cortex and correlations across several activity patterns and task parameters. This CaMPARI-based recording method expands the capabilities of recording neuronal activity from freely-moving and behaving mice under minimally-restrictive experimental conditions and provides large-scale volumetric data that are currently not accessible otherwise.

Larger corpus callosum volume is favorable for theory of mind development in healthy children.

While previous research has demonstrated a link between the corpus callosum (CC) and theory of mind (ToM) abilities in individuals with corpus callosum agenesis (ACC), the relationship between CC volume and ToM remains unclear in healthy children. The present study examined whether CC volume influences children's performance on ToM tasks that assess their understanding of pretense, emotion recognition, and false beliefs. Forty children aged 6-12years underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and a cognitive test battery. We found that larger mid-anterior and central subsections of the CC significantly correlated with better ToM abilities. We could also demonstrate age- and sex-related effects, as the CC-ToM relationship differed between younger (6-8years) and older (9-12years) children, and between female and male participants. Importantly, the older children drove the association between the CC mid-anterior and central subsection volumes and ToM abilities. This study is the first to demonstrate that CC size is associated with ToM abilities in healthy children, underlining the idea that the CC plays a vital role in their socio-cognitive development. CC subsection volumes may thus not only serve as a measure of heterogeneity in neurodevelopmental populations known to exhibit socio-cognitive deficits, but also in typically developing children.

Human-like intuitive behavior and reasoning biases emerged in large language models but disappeared in ChatGPT.

We design a battery of semantic illusions and cognitive reflection tests, aimed to elicit intuitive yet erroneous responses. We administer these tasks, traditionally used to study reasoning and decision-making in humans, to OpenAI's generative pre-trained transformer model family. The results show that as the models expand in size and linguistic proficiency they increasingly display human-like intuitive system 1 thinking and associated cognitive errors. This pattern shifts notably with the introduction of ChatGPT models, which tend to respond correctly, avoiding the traps embedded in the tasks. Both ChatGPT-3.5 and 4 utilize the input-output context window to engage in chain-of-thought reasoning, reminiscent of how people use notepads to support their system 2 thinking. Yet, they remain accurate even when prevented from engaging in chain-of-thought reasoning, indicating that their system-1-like next-word generation processes are more accurate than those of older models. Our findings highlight the value of applying psychological methodologies to study large language models, as this can uncover previously undetected emergent characteristics.

Allocation of cognitive resources for older adults with normal or impaired hearing when listening to temporally degraded and masked speech

Hearing impairment may affect how older listeners allocate cognitive resources when communicating in challenging environments. Older adults with normal or impaired hearing completed three speech recognition studies. The studies consisted of 15-16 measures of temporally filtered speech with (1) degraded spectral cues, (2) competing speech-modulated noise, and (3) speech vocoding in speech-modulated noise. Generalization was assessed with measures of speech interruption, segregation, and multitalker masking. To account for audibility differences, all listeners received spectral shaping fit to their hearing thresholds. Measures in each study were reduced to a single principal component (PC) that represented speech recognition abilities. Participants also completed a cognitive test battery that yielded domain-specific PCs and a measure of speech glimpsing. For each study, hierarchical linear regression analysis was completed separately for subgroups of older adults with normal or impaired hearing using cognitive PCs as predictor variables, followed by speech glimpsing, age, and hearing thresholds. Vocabulary knowledge was the best predictor of speech recognition for older adults with normal hearing, whereas working memory consistently explained ∼30%-40% of the variance in recognition for older adults with hearing loss. Thus, even with sufficient audibility, hearing impairment may alter allocation of cognitive resources for older adults listening to degraded speech.

Cognitive functions and sense of coherence in patients with carotid artery stenosis-Preliminary report.

There is scarcely any data in the available literature on the relationship between sense of coherence (SOC) and cognitive functioning, and no information on the relationship between SOC and cognitive parameters in patients with carotid atherosclerosis. The aim of this paper was to determine the relationship of SOC measured prior to carotid artery stenting (CAS) with neurocognitive functioning in patients with carotid atherosclerosis 12 months after CAS. A total of 35 patients with carotid atherosclerosis completed the SOC-29 Orientation to Life Questionnaire (SOC-29) and completed a cognitive test battery twice, i.e., before (baseline-T1) and 12 months after stent implantation (follow-up-T2). Selected cognitive functions such as memory, attention, perception, visuospatial and executive functions and non-verbal fluency were assessed. One year after the procedure, patients with a higher SOC and sense of manageability present better performance in visual memory. Higher SOC and sense of meaningfulness are positively related to the speed of understanding the changing rules of card sorting (WCST). Higher overall SOC and a component of sense of meaningfulness and manageability may be related to better cognitive functioning 1 year after the procedure.

The brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66met polymorphism is associated with better attention and working memory performance and resilience to mild chronic stress.

The val66met polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene has been identified as a potential moderator for the relationship between chronic stress and executive functioning. However, whether the presence of the met allele increases cognitive vulnerability or resilience to stress has yet to be determined. Given the established effects of autonomic activity and psychological arousal on executive functioning, in the present study, 56 healthy university students completed self-report measures of chronic stress, positive arousal (vigour) and negative arousal (anxiety) and measured heart-rate variability to quantify autonomic activity. Participants then completed a cognitive test battery that measured attention, decision-making, visual learning and working memory. Regression analyses demonstrated that Val/met participants performed better on attention and working memory tasks than Val/val participants, but no differences were seen in decision-making and visual learning. Further, Val/met participants were protected from stress-related differences in attention seen in Val/val participants. Val66met was not associated with physiological or psychological arousal. This study demonstrates that val66met plays an important but selective role in cognitive performance.

TMS must not harm participants: guidelines for evaluating TMS protocol safety

ABSTRACT Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) can modulate a targeted brain region to assess whether that region is involved in a cognitive process. When TMS is employed in cognitive neuroscience, participants are typically healthy volunteers, and the technique is described as noninvasive. However, TMS parameters can be set such that stimulation produces long-lasting effects. Critically, TMS effects that have any possibility of lasting beyond a participant’s time in the lab are potentially harmful. In this editorial, evidence is considered that indicates a 20-Hz multi-day TMS protocol has long-lasting effects, and a continuous theta-burst stimulation protocol needs further testing before it is deemed noninvasive. The following guidelines are provided for TMS protocol evaluation: 1) Effects must be shown to completely dissipate before participants leave the lab by testing well beyond the expected duration. 2) Participants should complete a cognitive test battery before TMS and after the effects are expected to dissipate. 3) Protocols should not be employed that produce effects lasting longer than the time in the lab. 4) The number of participants should ensure error bars are small, and results generalize to the population. 5) Results should be assessed at the group and individual-participant level, and effects should dissipate for every participant. 6) Bayesian analysis should be conducted to evaluate evidence in favor of the null hypothesis. 7) Effects should be assessed in multiple cortical regions. It is hoped that these guidelines will be employed to ensure the continued use of TMS as a valuable tool in the field of cognitive neuroscience.

Adjunctive transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) plus sodium benzoate for the treatment of early-phase Alzheimer's disease: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Previous studies found that an NMDA receptor (NMDAR) enhancer, sodium benzoate, improved cognitive function of patients with early-phase Alzheimer's disease (AD). Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) induces NMDAR-dependent synaptic plasticity and strengthens cognitive function of AD patients. This study aimed to evaluate efficacy and safety of tDCS plus benzoate in early-phase dementia. In this 24-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 97 patients with early-phase AD received 10-session tDCS during the first 2 weeks. They then took benzoate or placebo for 24 weeks. We assessed the patients using Alzheimer's disease assessment scale - cognitive subscale (ADAS-cog), Clinician's Interview-Based Impression of Change plus Caregiver Input, Mini Mental Status Examination, Alzheimer's disease Cooperative Study scale for ADL in MCI, and a battery of additional cognitive tests. Forty-seven patients received sodium benzoate, and the other 50 placebo. The two treatment groups didn't differ significantly in ADAS-cog or other measures. Addition of benzoate to tDCS didn't get extra benefit or side effect in this study. For more thoroughly studying the potential of combining tDCS with benzoate in the AD treatment, future research should use other study designs, such as longer-term benzoate treatment, adding benzoate in the middle of tDCS trial sessions, or administering benzoate then tDCS.

Effects of Auditory Training in Older Adults.

This study examines the effects of an auditory training program on the auditory and cognitive abilities of older adults. Auditory rehabilitation programs are generally designed for hearing aid users, and studies have demonstrated benefits for them. In this study, we seek to understand whether such a training program can also benefit older adults who do not wear hearing aids. We also examined if cognitive benefits can indeed be observed as a result of the training. Sixty-four older adults were recruited and assigned into three groups: the experimental group (n = 20), the active control group (n = 21), and the no-training control group (n = 23). The experimental group underwent an auditory training program (Listening and Communication Enhancement [LACE]) during the training phase. Meanwhile, the active control group listened to short audio clips and the no-training control group did not participate in any program. An auditory test (Quick Speech-in-Noise [QuickSIN]) and a battery of cognitive tests were conducted before and after the training to examine the participants' performance on auditory ability, short-term memory, and attention. The results showed improvements in auditory and cognitive abilities during the training period. When assessing the training effects by comparing the pre- and the posttraining performances, a significant improvement on the QuickSIN task was found in the training group but not in the other two groups. However, other cognitive tests did not show any significant improvement. That is, the LACE training did not benefit short-term memory and attention. The improved performance on short-term memory during the training was not maintained in the posttraining session. Overall, the study has extended the auditory benefit from the LACE training to the typical aging population in terms of improved communication ability, but the effect of training on auditory abilities did not transfer to gains in cognitive abilities.

Dose-Response of Creatine Supplementation on Cognitive Function in Healthy Young Adults.

To determine if creatine (Cr) supplementation could influence cognitive performance and whether any changes were related to changes in prefrontal cortex (PFC) activation during such cognitive tasks, thirty (M = 11, F = 19) participants were evenly randomized to receive supplementation with Cr (CR10:10 g/day or CR20:20 g/day) or a placebo (PLA:10 g/day) for 6 weeks. Participants completed a cognitive test battery (processing speed, episodic memory, and attention) on two separate occasions prior to and following supplementation. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to measure PFC oxyhemoglobin (O2Hb) during the cognitive evaluation. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine the differences between the groups and the timepoints for the cognitive performance scores and PFC O2Hb. In addition, a one-way ANOVA of % change was used to determine pre- and post-differences between the groups. Creatine (independent of dosage) had no significant effect on the measures of cognitive performance. There was a trend for decreased relative PFC O2Hb in the CR10 group versus the PLA group in the processing speed test (p = 0.06). Overall, six weeks of Cr supplementation at a moderate or high dose does not improve cognitive performance or change PFC activation in young adults.