Coastal Mangrove Forests Research Articles

Plastic pollution in an estuary: A preliminary study on the Rupsha river in southwestern Bangladesh

Plastic pollution is one of the major threats to the biodiversity of coastal mangrove forest Sundarbans. The current research focused on the preliminary assessment of plastics load to benthic biodiversity in a major estuary, the Rupsha in southwestern Bangladesh. Visual studies were conducted at five different sampling sites based on human activities, viz Kalibari ghat (S1), Rupsha ferry ghat (S2), Lobonchora ghat (S3), Rupsha bridge ghat (S4) and Putimari ghat (S5 as reference site). Thirteen (13) different plastic types under three categories were identified from the five-study sites. These categories belong to (i) fishing related debris: net, line, buoy, other fishing materials (ii) domestic useable plastics: bottle, bucket, bag/film, foamed polystyrene and polythene, and (iii) category of other types including packet, rope, pipe and shoes. Among all types, packet and polythene were the most abundant in number and both of them were the highest in number in Rupsha ferry ghat (8.67±3.79 for polythene and 9.33±5.86 for packet) whereas lowest in S5 (0.67±0.58 for polythene). Overall, the highest number of plastics (individual items) was identified in S2 station (36±12.5) following to S4 station (24.33±1.53) and lowest at S5 (3.33±0.58). Biodiversity index were also calculated where higher species richness (D) and Shannon index (H) were observed to be higher in S5 compared to other sampling sites.

Elevation Regimes Modulated the Responses of Canopy Structure of Coastal Mangrove Forests to Hurricane Damage

Mangrove forests have unique ecosystem functions and services, yet the coastal mangroves in tropics are often disturbed by tropical cyclones. Hurricane Maria swept Puerto Rico and nearby Caribbean islands in September 2017 and caused tremendous damage to the coastal mangrove systems. Understanding the vulnerability and resistance of mangrove forests to disturbances is pivotal for future restoration and conservation. In this study, we used LiDAR point clouds to derive the canopy height of five major mangrove forests, including true mangroves and mangrove associates, along the coast of Puerto Rico before and after the hurricanes, which allowed us to detect the spatial variations of canopy height reduction. We then spatially regressed the pre-hurricane canopy height and the canopy height reduction on biophysical factors such as the elevation, the distance to rivers/canals within and nearby, the distance to coast, tree density, and canopy unevenness. The analyses resulted in the following findings. The pre-hurricane canopy height increased with elevation when elevation was low and moderate but decreased with elevation when elevation was high. The canopy height reduction increased quadratically with the pre-hurricane canopy height, but decreased with elevation for the four sites dominated by true mangroves. The site of Palma del Mar dominated by Pterocarpus, a mangrove associate, experienced the strongest wind, and the canopy height reduction increased with elevation. The canopy height reduction decreased with the distance to rivers/canals only for sites with low to moderate mean elevation of 0.36–0.39 m. In addition to the hurricane winds, the rainfall during hurricanes is an important factor causing canopy damage by inundating the aerial roots. In summary, the pre-hurricane canopy structures, physical environment, and external forces brought by hurricanes interplayed to affect the vulnerability of coastal mangroves to major hurricanes.

Analysis of Damage to Trees in the Coastal Mangrove Forest of East Lampung Regency

Mangrove forests must have health conditions to maintain forest functions and ensure benefits for the community's welfare and living creatures around them. Based on this, an evaluation of the health situation of the woodland is essential to ensure that the health situation of the mangrove forests is maintained. This research was conducted to assess and obtain data and information on the health of mangrove forests withinside the coastal regions of the East Lampung Regency. The levels on this look have been figuring out the measurement plot, making the forest health measurement plot, collecting data, identifying tree health, and analyzing forest health data. The results of the research that have been carried out show that of the 8 cluster plots that have been made, it was found that the dominant types of damage were open wounds, damaged leaves, shoots, and shoots, as well as broken/dead branches. Then, the locations of most damage were found in sprouts and shoots, branches, lower stems, leaves, and the tops and bottoms of stems. The average forest health condition within the coastal location of East Lampung Regency is within the medium class with a median NKH fee of 5,29. This indicates that the mangrove forests are correctly applied and controlled via way of the encompassing communities, especially those who depend on these mangrove forests. So far, the government and the community have worked together to conserve mangrove forests.

Water Column Microbial Communities Vary along Salinity Gradients in the Florida Coastal Everglades Wetlands.

Planktonic microbial communities mediate many vital biogeochemical processes in wetland ecosystems, yet compared to other aquatic ecosystems, like oceans, lakes, rivers or estuaries, they remain relatively underexplored. Our study site, the Florida Everglades (USA)—a vast iconic wetland consisting of a slow-moving system of shallow rivers connecting freshwater marshes with coastal mangrove forests and seagrass meadows—is a highly threatened model ecosystem for studying salinity and nutrient gradients, as well as the effects of sea level rise and saltwater intrusion. This study provides the first high-resolution phylogenetic profiles of planktonic bacterial and eukaryotic microbial communities (using 16S and 18S rRNA gene amplicons) together with nutrient concentrations and environmental parameters at 14 sites along two transects covering two distinctly different drainages: the peat-based Shark River Slough (SRS) and marl-based Taylor Slough/Panhandle (TS/Ph). Both bacterial as well as eukaryotic community structures varied significantly along the salinity gradient. Although freshwater communities were relatively similar in both transects, bacterioplankton community composition at the ecotone (where freshwater and marine water mix) differed significantly. The most abundant taxa in the freshwater marshes include heterotrophic Polynucleobacter sp. and potentially phagotrophic cryptomonads of the genus Chilomonas, both of which could be key players in the transfer of detritus-based biomass to higher trophic levels.

Comparisons of habitat types and host tree species across a threatened Caribbean orchid’s core and edge distribution

AbstractTropical forest ecosystems are rich in epiphytes that make up a significant portion of the overall plant diversity. However, epiphytic plants are often understudied due to inaccessibility and the lack of basic ecological information poses challenges to their conservation, particularly in a time of rapid global change. The mule-ear orchid,Trichocentrum undulatum(Orchidaceae), is a large flowering epiphyte found in southern Florida (USA), the Greater, and Lesser Antilles including Cuba. The plant is Florida state-listed as endangered with only one remaining small and declining population in a coastal mangrove forest due to historical extraction and habitat destruction. Currently, there is no systematic understanding of the species’ habitat requirements. To fill this void, we compared the habitat and microhabitat of the species on its northern distribution edge (southern Florida) and the core range (in Cuba). The Florida population has only one host species,Conocarpus erectus, found in one habitat type. This is in sharp contrast to the 92 documented hosts and 5 habitats across 8 provinces in Cuba. Based on our findings from Cuba, we suggest conservation and restoration options in Florida by proposing potential suitable host plants and habitats. Proactive restoration of this species will help to ease the threat from sea-level rise to the species by securing and expanding range margins.

USING SENTINEL-2 DATA FOR ABOVE-GROUND MANGROVE BIOMASS AND CARBON STOCKS MAPPING OVER 7 YEARS (2016-2022) IN TIEN YEN, QUANG NINH PROVINCE

Mangrove forests are found along tropical and subtropical coastlines. They have vital functions in preventing coastal erosion, mitigating effects of wave actions, and protecting coastal habitats. This study used the Sentinel-2-derived CMRI thresholds for coastal land covers (CMRI > 0.47 for mangrove forests, -0.25 < CMRI ≤ 0.47 for non-mangrove forests, and CMRI ≤ -0.25 for water bodies). The CMRI is suitable for detecting mangrove cover along the coast of Tien Yen district with overall accuracy over 90.5% and Kappa coefficient greater than 0.85 for the whole selected years. Overall, the extent of coastal mangrove forests along the coast of Tien Yen, Quang Ninh province increased by 792.7 ha in 2022 compared to 2016. Moreover, the total AGB and AGC of mangrove forests were estimated at 2,761,533 tons and 1,311,728 tons in 2022, respectively. The total CO2 sequestration was estimated at 4,814,042 tons in 2022, an increase of 1,212,632 tons compared to 2016. The study assumed the constant carbon price of US$5 ton-1 CO2, US$11 ton-1 CO2, and US$15 ton-1 CO2, the total amount of CO2 paid for Tien Yen district would be about US$6,063,160, US$13,338,952, and US$18,189,480, respectively. The study highly suggests that mangrove blue carbon should be adopted and implemented toward sustainable mangrove management in Tien Yen district, including mangrove PES schemes. However, some key factors should be clearly addressed to ensure the success of mangrove blue carbon option in Tien Yen district, including an increased awareness of the value of mangrove ecosystem promoted; the involvement of local communities encouraged; other issues in relation to PES policy revised.

USING SENTINEL-2A DERIVED CMRI FOR MANGROVE COVER MAPPING OVER 7 YEARS (2016-2022) IN QUANG YEN, QUANG NINH PROVINCE

Mangrove forests are intertidal wetlands and found along tropical, subtropical, and warm-temperate coastlines. They have vital functions in preventing coastal erosion, mitigating effects of wave actions, and protecting coastal habitats. However, mangrove forests are more likely to be vulnerable as typhoons frequently hit and under driving human pressures. The study has constructed the spatial distribution of mangrove cover from 2016 to 2022 by using Sentinel-2A imageries. The Sentinel-2A data were used to detect changes in the extent of coastal mangrove forests using the visual interpretation approach in combination with the CMRI thresholds defined (CMRI > 0.47 for mangrove forests, -0.25 < CMRI ≤ 0.47 for non-mangrove forests, and CMRI ≤ -0.25 for areas covered water). The overall accuracy assessments of land covers in each selected year (2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, and 2022) are greater than 93.0% with Kappa coefficient more than 0.89, which have clearly confirmed using Sentinel-2A data for mapping temporal changes in mangrove forests are very reliable in along the coast of Quang Yen. The study also showed that mangrove cover in Quang Yen town decreased by 343.7 ha in 2022 (2,765.4 ha) compared to 2016 (3,109.1 ha). The development of aquaculture and shrimp farming, the expansion of agricultural production, and other land uses were defined as the main drivers for mangrove deforestation during the period of 2016-2022. The study highly suggests that using Sentinel-2A imagery should be applied to assess the changes of mangrove cover in Quang Yen town and expanded in other similar coastal areas in Quang Ninh province toward sustainable mangrove management.

Historical Maps provide insight into a century and a half of habitat change in Fijian coasts.

Meaningful conservation goals require setting baselines derived from long‐term ecological records and information that is rare in many regions of the world. Historical data allow us to shift baselines back in time in order to strengthen conservation outcomes in the future.To explore how different histories of land use and development influenced coastal ecosystems in two Fijian cities (Suva and Savusavu), we compared a series of historical navigational charts. These charts recorded change in coral reef area and coastal mangrove forests, as well as expansions of hardened shorelines. We used geographic information systems (GIS) to georeference and make quantitative comparisons starting in 1,840 in Suva and 1876 in Savusavu.Our findings show that, despite increasing urbanization in the capital Suva, available coral reef habitat has not significantly changed in over 150 years, but development has hastened a nearly 50% loss of mangroves. Meanwhile, in the smaller city of Savusavu, coral habitats suffered significant loss in area and an increase in patchiness. As in Suva, shoreline hardening increased in Savusavu, but this change was not accompanied by a loss of mangroves.Nautical charts provided hitherto unavailable information on the long‐term loss and alteration of coastal habitats in Fiji. Historical ecology allows scientists to combat shifting baseline syndrome and set measured standards for conservation objectives.

The Mangrove Forests of the Cameroon Coast and its Socio-Economic Significan


 
 
 The study analyses anthropogenic influence on the mangrove forests of the Cameroon coast and focuses on the development and improvement of the constructive- geographical foundations of rational nature management for the conservation and possible renewal of its natural resources base. The exploitation of mangrove forest landscapes has yielded significant benefits to the local population living within the mangrove forest limits, but the beneficiaries have not made commensurate investments in their sustainability and rational use. Therefore, this habitat must be carefully conserved or protected from wanton anthropogenic activities for the development purpose. The study made use primary and secondary data in establishing the facts analysed in this work. The secondary data comprised of materials of prominent authors who have contributed much to the findings related to coastal mangroves. Primary data collection was field visits carried out by the author in 2016. Questionnaires and semi- structural questions were used to collect information from mangrove exploiters. The findings confirm that the coastal mangrove forests in Cameroon have multiple functions beneficial to the communities adjacent to the coast, but, unfortunately, the beneficiaries have not made commensurate efforts to their sustainability and rationale. The Mangrove forests covered a surface area of 200 000 km2, but Cameroon lost 30 % of its mangrove forest cover in 1980–2006. If projected under ceteris paribus, Cameroon lost approximately 45 % of its mangrove forest cover in1980–2020. Haven understood that man has raped huge surfaces of mangrove forest for his selfish economic gains, the study proposed an urgent need for environmentally sustainable adaptive strategies like those earmarked in the Ramsay agreement and the ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management) for the rational management of coastal mangroves in Cameroon.
 
 

Crab diversity as support for ecotourism activities in Pejarakan Mangrove Forest, Buleleng, Bali, Indonesia

Abstract. Ginantra IK, Muksin IK, Joni M. 2021. Crab diversity as support for ecotourism activities in Pejarakan Mangrove Forest, Buleleng, Bali, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 22: 4139-4145. This research aims to determine the diversity of crabs to support ecotourism activities in the coastal mangrove forest of Pejarakan Buleleng. Sampling of crabs was carried out using the square method, as many as 23 squares were spread over three mangrove zones, namely the front zone, the middle zone, and the rear zone. The number of individual crustacean species in each square plot was counted. Crab identification is based on morphological characters (shell color, claw shape, body-color, body size). Habitat use activities are observed directly. The diversity of crabs was calculated using the Shannon-Wiener diversity index. The results showed that in the coastal mangrove area of Pejarakan Buleleng, there were 11 species of crabs (9 species of crabs and 2 species of hermit crabs). Species diversity is in the medium category (index 2.25) and evenness index is high (E = 0.93, mangrove conditions are stable). The seaward mangrove zone shows a higher diversity of crab species than the middle zone and the rear zone. The species of crabs that are quite abundant in the three zonings are Uca vocans, Chiromanthes sp., and Coenobita sp. Characteristics of crabs, activities, habitat use in mangrove zoning are attractions for ecotourism activities.

Elevation and Distribution of Freshwater and Sewage Canals Regulate Canopy Structure and Differentiate Hurricane Damages to a Basin Mangrove Forest

The coastal mangrove forest bears important ecosystem functions and services, including the protection of shorelines and coastal communities. While coastal mangroves often suffer severe damage during storms, understanding the vulnerability and resistance of mangroves to the damage at a landscape scale is crucial for coastal mangrove management and conservation. In September 2017, two consecutive major hurricanes caused tremendous damage to the coastal mangroves in the Caribbean. By utilizing LiDAR data taken before and after the hurricanes in a basin mangrove forest in Northeast Puerto Rico, we analyzed the spatial variation of a canopy structure before the hurricanes and hurricane-induced canopy height reduction and explored possible drivers by means of spatial regressions. Regarding the canopy structure, we found that the pre-hurricane canopy height of the mangrove forest decreased with elevation and distance to the freshwater/sewage canals within the forest, and these two drivers explained 82% of variations in the mangrove canopy height. The model, thus, implies that freshwater and nutrient inputs brought by the canals tend to promote the canopy height, and mangrove trees at lower elevation are especially more advantageous. Similarly, tree densities decreased with the canopy height but increased with the elevation and the distance to the canals. We also found that this mangrove forest suffered on average a 53% canopy height reduction, reflecting mostly heavy crown defoliation and the rupture of branches. The regression, which explains 88% of spatial variation in the canopy height reduction, showed that mangroves with a higher canopy or lower density, or growing in lower elevation, or being closer to the canals suffered more damage. Our findings indicate that delivered freshwater/sewage by means of human-made canals has a strong impact on the canopy structure as well as its resistance to tropical storms. Freshwater and sewage tend to release the salinity stress and nutrient deficit and, thus, to promote the mangrove canopy height. However, the addition of freshwater and nutrients might also increase the risk of mangrove damage during the storms probably because of an altered allometry of assimilates.

Perilaku Masyarakat Pesisir di Hutan Mangrove Desa Balangdatu Kabupaten Takalar

This study aims to determine (i) the forms of coastal community behavior in mangrove forests. And (ii) the impact of community behavior on mangrove forests. This type of research is descriptive qualitative. This study aims to describe the behavior of coastal communities in the mangrove forests of Balangdatu Village and the impact of the behavior of coastal communities in the mangrove forests of Balangdatu Village, Takalar Regency. The data collection techniques are by conducting observations, interviews, and documentation. The data validation technique is source triangulation, which is to examine the credibility of the data by checking the data that has been obtained through several sources. From the results of the study found that (i) The form of behavior of coastal mangrove forest community consists of ecocentrism (preserving) and anthropocentrism (damaging). Sustainable behavior consists of community-based conservation and preservation of mangrove forests with the application of local wisdom, while destructive behavior of the community over-exploits, changes the function of mangrove lands into ponds and environmental pollution. (ii) Impacts of community behavior in mangrove forests include positive and negative impacts that affect the economic and ecological functions of mangrove forests.

Composition and Activity of N2-Fixing Microorganisms in Mangrove Forest Soils

Mangrove forests are considered to be a highly productive ecosystem, but they are also generally nitrogen (N)-limited. Thus, soil N2 fixation can be important for the stability of both mangrove ecosystem functions and upland N supply. This study evaluates the N2 fixation activity and composition of relevant microorganisms in two coastal mangrove forests—the Guandu mangrove in an upstream estuary and the Bali mangrove in a downstream estuary—using the acetylene reduction method, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and next-generation sequencing. The results demonstrated that ambient nitrogenase activity was higher in downstream mangrove forests (13.2–15.6 nmol h−1 g−1 soil) than in upstream mangrove forests (0.2–1.4 nmol h−1 g−1 soil). However, both the maximum potential nitrogenase activity and nitrogenase gene (nifH gene) copy number were found to be higher in the upstream than in the downstream mangrove forests, implying that the nitrogenase activity and diazotrophic abundance may not necessarily be positively correlated. In addition, amended MoO4 (which inhibits the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria in N2-fixation) yielded low nitrogenase activity, and sulfate-reducing bacteria made up 20–50% of the relative diazotrophic abundance in the mangrove forests, indicating that these bacteria might be the major active diazotrophs in this environment.

IbM Kelompok Masyarakat Pesisir Terhadap Perlindungan dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup di Desa Pria Laot Kota Sabang

The purpose of this service is to provide solutions by implementing Science through the Science and Technology program for the community at the STIES Research and Community Service Center to carry out advocacy and legal consultation to the community in Batee Shok Juroeng Pria Laot Village, Sukakarya District, Sabang City in order to minimize conflict and grant authority. local communities in the protection and management of the environment, especially the management of resources in coastal areas. The method used in IbM activities with a social approach, implementing Legal Counseling and Program Strategies for Coastal Mangrove Forest Management Community Groups, activities carried out by Focus Group Discussion (FGD), and implementation involving students as part of learning in the ways and processes of resolving environmental disputes related to with a Subject in Environmental Law and Management Economics. The conclusions of the service activities are; 1) The establishment of environmental law awareness for coastal communities to maintain and protect coastal resources in residential areas, 2) Form and reorganize the Coastal Management Community Group, and 3) Open access for people outside Batee Shok Village to utilize supporting facilities and infrastructure. Sabang City National Park Tourism.

Diversity, density, and Importance Value Index of mangroves in the Segara Anakan lagoon and its surrounding area, Cilacap Regency, Indonesia

Coastal mangrove forest habitats in the Segara Anakan Lagoon have become an important area for estuarine fisheries which should be preserved for sustainability. This study aims to analyze diversity, density, and the importance value index of the mangrove in the area. The method used was a plot and path (combination method). To conduct this study, the nine purposely sampled stations ranged from the western Segara Anakan Lagoon to the eastern mangrove area adjacent to the Donan River. The nine station was grouped into 3 (three areas) namely; Mangrove Eastern Area (river influence), Mangrove Middle Area, Mangrove Western Area (seawater influence. The results show the average mangrove density overall stations were dominated by seedlings with 39881 individuals/ha with fraction 75%, followed by saplings with 12311 individuals/ha (23%), and tree category with 711 individuals/ha (1%). Because of the average mangrove density of tree category less than 1000 trees/ha so, the mangrove forest in the Segara Anakan Lagoon and its surrounding area was categorized to be damaged. Meanwhile, the highest Importance Value Index (IVI) was at 221 for R. apiculata and at 220 for Sonneratia caseolaris for all stations.

Analysis of Changes in Health of Coastal Mangrove Forest on the East Coast of Lampung

The mangrove forest is a forest ecosystem that supports life for the surrounding ecosystem. However, the area of mangrove forests is decreasing. It is recorded that up to 2016, there is only 2.9 million hectares of mangrove forests in Indonesia. Mangrove forests’ existence needs to be maintained in the surrounding ecosystem. One of the efforts to protect the mangrove forest ecosystem is to see changes in mangrove forest health. This effort can be used as the basis for sustainable mangrove forest management—this research’s purpose—this the real aim of mangrove forests on the east coast of Lampung. The study was conducted at three locations on the east coast of Lampung (Pasir Sakti District, Labuhan Maringgai District, and Way Kambas National Park). The method used was the Forest Health Monitoring (FHM). The results showed that mangrove forests’ health value on the east coast of Lampung had positively changed except for cluster plots 2 and 3. The health of mangrove forests on the east coast of Lampung has increased the forest’s health value. The increase in forest health value is influenced by factors from the indicators used, especially vitality.

Large-Scale High-Resolution Coastal Mangrove Forests Mapping Across West Africa With Machine Learning Ensemble and Satellite Big Data

Coastal mangrove forests provide important ecosystem goods and services, including carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and hazard mitigation. However, they are being destroyed at an alarming rate by human activities. To characterize mangrove forest changes, evaluate their impacts, and support relevant protection and restoration decision making, accurate and up-to-date mangrove extent mapping at large spatial scales is essential. Available large-scale mangrove extent data products use a single machine learning method commonly with 30 m Landsat imagery, and significant inconsistencies remain among these data products. With huge amounts of satellite data involved and the heterogeneity of land surface characteristics across large geographic areas, finding the most suitable method for large-scale high-resolution mangrove mapping is a challenge. The objective of this study is to evaluate the performance of a machine learning ensemble for mangrove forest mapping at 20 m spatial resolution across West Africa using Sentinel-2 (optical) and Sentinel-1 (radar) imagery. The machine learning ensemble integrates three commonly used machine learning methods in land cover and land use mapping, including Random Forest (RF), Gradient Boosting Machine (GBM), and Neural Network (NN). The cloud-based big geospatial data processing platform Google Earth Engine (GEE) was used for pre-processing Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-1 data. Extensive validation has demonstrated that the machine learning ensemble can generate mangrove extent maps at high accuracies for all study regions in West Africa (92%–99% Producer’s Accuracy, 98%–100% User’s Accuracy, 95%–99% Overall Accuracy). This is the first-time that mangrove extent has been mapped at a 20 m spatial resolution across West Africa. The machine learning ensemble has the potential to be applied to other regions of the world and is therefore capable of producing high-resolution mangrove extent maps at global scales periodically.

Relating millimeter‐scale turbulence to meter‐scale subtidal erosion and accretion across the fringe of a coastal mangrove forest

AbstractWithin a wave‐exposed mangrove forest, novel field observations are presented, comparing millimeter‐scale turbulent water velocity fluctuations with contemporaneous subtidal bed elevation changes. High‐resolution velocity and bed level measurements were collected from the unvegetated mudflat, at the mangrove forest fringe, and within the forest interior over multiple tidal cycles (flood–ebb) during a 2‐week period. Measurements demonstrated that the spatial variability in vegetation density is a control on sediment transport at sub‐meter scales. Scour around single and dense clusters of pneumatophores was predicted by a standard hydraulic engineering equation for wave‐induced scour around regular cylinders, when the cylinder diameter in the equations was replaced with the representative diameter of the dense pneumatophore clusters. Waves were dissipated as they propagated into the forest, but dissipation at infragravity periods (> 30 s) was observed to be less than dissipation at shorter periods (< 30 s), consistent with the predictions of a simple model. Cross‐wavelet analysis revealed that infragravity‐frequency fluctuations in the bed level were occasionally coherent with velocity, possibly indicating scour upstream of dense pneumatophore patches when infragravity waves reinforced tidal currents. Consequently, infragravity waves were a likely driver of sediment transport within the mangrove forest. Near‐bed turbulent kinetic energy, estimated from the turbulent dissipation rate, was also correlated with bed level changes. Specifically, within the mangrove forest and over the unvegetated mudflat, high‐energy events were associated with erosion or near‐zero bed level change, whereas low‐energy events were associated with accretion. In contrast, no single relationship between bed level changes and mean current velocity was applicable across both vegetated and unvegetated regions. These observations support the theory that sediment mobilization scales with turbulent energy, rather than mean velocity, a distinction that becomes important when vegetation controls the development of turbulence.

Hurricane Maria Killed Mangroves Months After Storm

An overgrown channel between a lagoon and the ocean on the Puerto Rican island of Vieques created a backup of freshwater, disrupting the delicate balance of salinity in coastal mangrove forests.

Modeling and Prediction of Water Quality: Evidence of Benarpota Station of Sundarbans Region

The Sundarbans contain the world's largest coastal mangrove forest, with an area of about 10,000 km2 (3,900 sq mi), of which about 6,000 km2 (2,300 sq mi) are located in Bangladesh and about 4,000 km2 (1,500 sq mi) in India. Salinity will be the major issue in the future which could destroy the natural ecological balance. The major salinity components are electric conductivity (EC) at low tide and high tide with the corresponding chloride in low tide and high tide. This study develops a SARMA (2, 0, 2) (2, 0, 0) [4] model as it provides the minimum value of model selection criterion (AIC, BIC, SIC, RMSE) compare to all other models. It was found that the bestfitted model for EC in a high tide of study area follows a seasonal autoregressive moving average model of order (2, 0, 2)(2, 0, 0) [4] and chloride in high tide follows SARMA (1, 0, 1) (2, 0, 2) [4]. After fitting the time series model and forecasting the fitted model, the study showed that in both electric conductivity (EC) and salinity (Chloride ppm) increasing in the last three decades. EC crosses the poor water quality level which is more than 4 ppt or 2560 ppm. Salinity also crosses the poor water quality level which is more than 5 ppt or 3200 ppm. The findings of this study would be a potential contribution to make a comprehensive management plan for the long-term conservation and protection of the cultural landscape and mangrove wetlands ecosystem in the Sundarbans region.