Class Of Mobile Genetic Elements Research Articles

Unravelling the main genomic features of Mycoplasma equirhinis

BackgroundMycoplasma spp. are wall-less bacteria with small genomes (usually 0.5–1.5 Mb). Many Mycoplasma (M.) species are known to colonize the respiratory tract of both humans and livestock animals, where they act as primary pathogens or opportunists. M. equirhinis was described for the first time in 1975 in horses but has been poorly studied since, despite regular reports of around 14% prevalence in equine respiratory disorders. We recently showed that M. equirhinis is not a primary pathogen but could play a role in co-infections of the respiratory tract. This study was a set up to propose the first genomic characterization to better our understanding of the M. equirhinis species.ResultsFour circularized genomes, two of which were generated here, were compared in terms of synteny, gene content, and specific features associated with virulence or genome plasticity. An additional 20 scaffold-level genomes were used to analyse intra-species diversity through a pangenome phylogenetic approach. The M. equirhinis species showed consistent genomic homogeneity, pointing to potential clonality of isolates despite their varied geographical origins (UK, Japan and various places in France). Three different classes of mobile genetic elements have been detected: insertion sequences related to the IS1634 family, a putative prophage related to M. arthritidis and integrative conjugative elements related to M. arginini. The core genome harbours the typical putative virulence-associated genes of mycoplasmas mainly involved in cytoadherence and immune escape.ConclusionM. equirhinis is a highly syntenic, homogeneous species with a limited repertoire of mobile genetic elements and putative virulence genes.

The role of retroelements of the human genome in the development of type 1 diabetes mellitus

Retroelements (retrotransposons and endogenous retroviruses) are a class of mobile genetic elements that move in the genome by inserting their own reverse transcribed transcripts. They serve as drivers of epigenetic regulation; therefore, individual characteristics of the distribution of retroelements in the genome influence the development of multifactorial diseases. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is a multifactorial disease with an immune response against pancreatic β cells. The role of heredity in the development of the disease is estimated at 88%, and the role of allelic variants of various genes is determined. There are also other specific types of diabetes mellitus, which account for more than 2% of cases of diabetes mellitus and are monogenic diseases with an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance due to germline mutations in the MODY genes, including HNF4A, GCK, HNF1A, HNF1B. Most patients with type 1 diabetes have the protein product and ribonucleic acid (RNA) of the insulin inhibitor HERV-W-Env, which is caused by abnormal expression of the human endogenous retrovirus (HERV). An assumption has been made about the role of retroelements in the development of type 1 diabetes mellitus. This is due to their involvement in the phylogenetic formation of the endocrine system, since in evolution retroelements turned out to be sources of regulatory sequences of hormone genes, nuclear hormone receptors and binding sites for them. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is associated with the integration of HERV into the HLA-DQ gene region, with allelic variants and sizes of VNTR variable tandem repeats (part of the SVA retroelements), which regulate the expression of the insulin gene and other hormones. For this reason, it is likely that the development of type 1 diabetes mellitus may be based on individual characteristics of the distribution of HERVs in the human genome and their dynamic changes in ontogenesis. HERVs also play a role in the etiopathogenesis of diabetes mellitus through the activation of an autoimmune response, the triggering factors of which are exogenous viral infections and stress. Thus, retroelements are involved in various mechanisms of the development of type 1 diabetes mellitus, which reflects their global regulatory influence on endocrine regulation.

The complete genome sequence of unculturable Mycoplasma faucium obtained through clinical metagenomic next-generation sequencing.

Diagnosing Mycoplasma faucium poses challenges, and it's unclear if its rare isolation is due to infrequent occurrence or its fastidious nutritional requirements. This study analyzes the complete genome sequence of M. faucium, obtained directly from the pus of a sternum infection in a lung transplant patient using metagenomic sequencing. Genome analysis revealed limited therapeutic options for the M. faucium infection, primarily susceptibility to tetracyclines. Three classes of mobile genetic elements were identified: two new insertion sequences, a new prophage (phiUMCG-1), and a species-specific variant of a mycoplasma integrative and conjugative element (MICE). Additionally, a Type I Restriction-Modification system was identified, featuring 5'-terminally truncated hsdS pseudogenes with overlapping repeats, indicating the potential for forming alternative hsdS variants through recombination. This study represents the first-ever acquisition of a complete circularized bacterial genome directly from a patient sample obtained from invasive infection of a primary sterile site using culture-independent, PCR-free clinical metagenomics.

Transposable elements acquire time- and sex-specific transcriptional and epigenetic signatures along mouse fetal gonad development.

Gonadal sex determination in mice is a complex and dynamic process, which is crucial for the development of functional reproductive organs. The expression of genes involved in this process is regulated by a variety of genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. Recently, there has been increasing evidence that transposable elements (TEs), which are a class of mobile genetic elements, play a significant role in regulating gene expression during embryogenesis and organ development. In this study, we aimed to investigate the involvement of TEs in the regulation of gene expression during mouse embryonic gonadal development. Through bioinformatics analysis, we aimed to identify and characterize specific TEs that operate as regulatory elements for sex-specific genes, as well as their potential mechanisms of regulation. We identified TE loci expressed in a time- and sex-specific manner along fetal gonad development that correlate positively and negatively with nearby gene expression, suggesting that their expression is integrated to the gonadal regulatory network. Moreover, chromatin accessibility and histone post-transcriptional modification analyses in differentiating supporting cells revealed that TEs are acquiring a sex-specific signature for promoter-, enhancer-, and silencer-like elements, with some of them being proximal to critical sex-determining genes. Altogether, our study introduces TEs as the new potential players in the gene regulatory network that controls gonadal development in mammals.

209 Prevalence of Antimicrobial Resistance Genes and Mobile Genetic Elements in the Swine Gut Microbiome

Abstract Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the most pressing threats to public health. It contributes to over a million deaths a year currently and by 2050 it is expected to cause more annual death than cancer. The swine industry has taken important steps to address the AMR crisis by phasing out the use of antimicrobial growth promoters. Nonetheless, the use of antimicrobials for controlling infectious diseases on swine farms remains high, particularly during the nursery stage of pig production. This has raised concerns about the potential role of the swine industry in the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) capable of conferring resistance to medically important antimicrobials. While traditionally ARGs have been studied in the context of pathogens, there is growing evidence that the natural microbiome of humans and animals can also serve as a significant reservoir of ARGs. Of particular importance is the association of ARGs with different classes of mobile genetic elements (MGEs) which can facilitate the horizontal transfer of genes among commensal bacteria and pathogens. In this study, we evaluated the diversity and distribution of ARGs and their associated MGEs in the swine gut microbiome. To achieve this, we isolated and sequenced the whole genomes of 130 unique bacterial isolates from stool, digesta, and mucosa of healthy adult sows and their piglets. Screening of genomes for the presence of ARGs was performed using the Resistance Gene Identifier (RGI) and Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database (CARD), resulting in the identification of 323 ARGs across 117 genomes. Among these, genes predicted to confer resistance against tetracycline, lincosamide, beta-lactams, and fluoroquinolone were the most prevalent across all genomes. Importantly, we observed that several strictly anaerobic species belonging to gut-specific lineages including Lachnospiraceae, Megasphaeraceae, and Desulfovibrionaceae contained large ARGs pools spanning more than five different classes of antimicrobials. Further, we screened the flanking regions of ARGs for the presence of signature genes of MGEs including recombinases, phage integrases and capsids, and type IV secretion system. A total of 60 ARGs were identified to be associated with different classes of MGEs, including integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs; n = 30), bacteriophages (n = 8), integrative mobile elements (IMEs; n = 6), and plasmids (n = 3). Overall, our study highlights that ARGs, including those conferring resistance to medically important antimicrobials, are prevalent across different lineages of the swine gut microbiota. The association of the identified ARGs with MGEs warrants further in vitro experiments to evaluate the risk of transmission of resistance to zoonotic pathogens capable of infecting humans and animals.

Characterization and Diversity of Klebsiella pneumoniae Prophages.

Klebsiella pneumoniae is a common human commensal and opportunistic pathogen. In recent years, the clinical isolation and resistance rates of K. pneumoniae have shown a yearly increase, leading to a special interest in mobile genetic elements. Prophages are a representative class of mobile genetic elements that can carry host-friendly genes, transfer horizontally between strains, and coevolve with the host's genome. In this study, we identified 15,946 prophages from the genomes of 1437 fully assembled K. pneumoniae deposited in the NCBI database, with 9755 prophages on chromosomes and 6191 prophages on plasmids. We found prophages to be notably diverse and widely disseminated in the K. pneumoniae genomes. The K. pneumoniae prophages encoded multiple putative virulence factors and antibiotic resistance genes. The comparison of strain types with prophage types suggests that the two may be related. The differences in GC content between the same type of prophages and the genomic region in which they were located indicates the alien properties of the prophages. The overall distribution of GC content suggests that prophages integrated on chromosomes and plasmids may have different evolutionary characteristics. These results suggest a high prevalence of prophages in the K. pneumoniae genome and highlight the effect of prophages on strain characterization.

Specific suppression of long terminal repeat retrotransposon mobilization in plants.

The tissue culture passage necessary for the generation of transgenic plants induces genome instability. This instability predominantly involves the uncontrolled mobilization of LTR retrotransposons (LTR-TEs), which are the most abundant class of mobile genetic elements in plant genomes. Here, we demonstrate that in conditions inductive for high LTR-TE mobilization, like abiotic stress in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and callus culture in rice (Oryza sativa), application of the reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitor known as Tenofovir substantially affects LTR-TE RT activity without interfering with plant development. We observed that Tenofovir reduces extrachromosomal DNA accumulation and prevents new genomic integrations of the active LTR-TE ONSEN in heat-stressed Arabidopsis seedlings, and transposons of O. sativa 17 and 19 (Tos17 and Tos19) in rice calli. In addition, Tenofovir allows the recovery of plants free from new LTR-TE insertions. We propose the use of Tenofovir as a tool for studies of LTR-TE transposition and for limiting genetic instabilities of plants derived from tissue culture.

Nucleic acids movement and its relation to genome dynamics of repetitive DNA: Is cellular and intercellular movement of DNA and RNA molecules related to the evolutionary dynamic genome components?: Is cellular and intercellular movement of DNA and RNA molecules related to the evolutionary dynamic genome components?

There is growing evidence of evolutionary genome plasticity. The evolution of repetitive DNA elements, the major components of most eukaryotic genomes, involves the amplification of various classes of mobile genetic elements, the expansion of satellite DNA, the transfer of fragments or entire organellar genomes and may have connections with viruses. In addition to various repetitive DNA elements, a plethora of large and small RNAs migrate within and between cells during individual development as well as during evolution and contribute to changes of genome structure and function. Such migration of DNA and RNA molecules often results in horizontal gene transfer, thus shaping the whole genomic network of interconnected species. Here, we propose that a high evolutionary dynamism of repetitive genome components is often related to the migration/movement of DNA or RNA molecules. We speculate that the cytoplasm is probably an ideal compartment for such evolutionary experiments.

Transposable Elements: Distribution, Polymorphism, and Climate Adaptation in Populus.

Transposable elements (TEs) are a class of mobile genetic elements that make effects on shaping rapid phenotypic traits of adaptive significance. TE insertions are usually related to transcription changes of nearby genes, and thus may be subjected to purifying selection. Based on the available genome resources of Populus, we found that the composition of Helitron DNA family were highly variable and could directly influence the transcription of nearby gene expression, which are involving in stress-responsive, programmed cell death, and apoptosis pathway. Next, we indicated TEs are highly enriched in Populus trichocarpa compared with three other congeneric poplar species, especially located at untranslated regions (3′UTRs and 5′UTRs) and Helitron transposons, particularly 24-nt siRNA-targeted, are significantly associated with reduced gene expression. Additionally, we scanned a representative resequenced Populus tomentosa population, and identified 9,680 polymorphic TEs loci. More importantly, we identified a Helitron transposon located at the 3′UTR, which could reduce WRKY18 expression level. Our results highlight the importance of TE insertion events, which could regulate gene expression and drive adaptive phenotypic variation in Populus.

Hijacking the Hijackers: Escherichia coli Pathogenicity Islands Redirect Helper Phage Packaging for Their Own Benefit.

SummaryPhage-inducible chromosomal islands (PICIs) represent a novel and universal class of mobile genetic elements, which have broad impact on bacterial virulence. In spite of their relevance, how the Gram-negative PICIs hijack the phage machinery for their own specific packaging and how they block phage reproduction remains to be determined. Using genetic and structural analyses, we solve the mystery here by showing that the Gram-negative PICIs encode a protein that simultaneously performs these processes. This protein, which we have named Rpp (for redirecting phage packaging), interacts with the phage terminase small subunit, forming a heterocomplex. This complex is unable to recognize the phage DNA, blocking phage packaging, but specifically binds to the PICI genome, promoting PICI packaging. Our studies reveal the mechanism of action that allows PICI dissemination in nature, introducing a new paradigm in the understanding of the biology of pathogenicity islands and therefore of bacterial pathogen evolution.

Phage-inducible chromosomal islands are ubiquitous within the bacterial universe

Phage-inducible chromosomal islands (PICIs) are a recently discovered family of pathogenicity islands that contribute substantively to horizontal gene transfer, host adaptation and virulence in Gram-positive cocci. Here we report that similar elements also occur widely in Gram-negative bacteria. As with the PICIs from Gram-positive cocci, their uniqueness is defined by a constellation of features: unique and specific attachment sites, exclusive PICI genes, a phage-dependent mechanism of induction, conserved replication origin organization, convergent mechanisms of phage interference, and specific packaging of PICI DNA into phage-like infectious particles, resulting in very high transfer frequencies. We suggest that the PICIs represent two or more distinct lineages, have spread widely throughout the bacterial world, and have diverged much more slowly than their host organisms or their prophage cousins. Overall, these findings represent the discovery of a universal class of mobile genetic elements.

The Mediator co-activator complex regulates Ty1 retromobility by controlling the balance between Ty1i and Ty1 promoters.

The Ty1 retrotransposons present in the genome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae belong to the large class of mobile genetic elements that replicate via an RNA intermediary and constitute a significant portion of most eukaryotic genomes. The retromobility of Ty1 is regulated by numerous host factors, including several subunits of the Mediator transcriptional co-activator complex. In spite of its known function in the nucleus, previous studies have implicated Mediator in the regulation of post-translational steps in Ty1 retromobility. To resolve this paradox, we systematically examined the effects of deleting non-essential Mediator subunits on the frequency of Ty1 retromobility and levels of retromobility intermediates. Our findings reveal that loss of distinct Mediator subunits alters Ty1 retromobility positively or negatively over a >10,000-fold range by regulating the ratio of an internal transcript, Ty1i, to the genomic Ty1 transcript. Ty1i RNA encodes a dominant negative inhibitor of Ty1 retromobility that blocks virus-like particle maturation and cDNA synthesis. These results resolve the conundrum of Mediator exerting sweeping control of Ty1 retromobility with only minor effects on the levels of Ty1 genomic RNA and the capsid protein, Gag. Since the majority of characterized intrinsic and extrinsic regulators of Ty1 retromobility do not appear to effect genomic Ty1 RNA levels, Mediator could play a central role in integrating signals that influence Ty1i expression to modulate retromobility.

LINE-1 protein localization and functional dynamics during the cell cycle.

LINE-1/L1 retrotransposon sequences comprise 17% of the human genome. Among the many classes of mobile genetic elements, L1 is the only autonomous retrotransposon that still drives human genomic plasticity today. Through its co-evolution with the human genome, L1 has intertwined itself with host cell biology. However, a clear understanding of L1's lifecycle and the processes involved in restricting its insertion and intragenomic spread remains elusive. Here we identify modes of L1 proteins' entrance into the nucleus, a necessary step for L1 proliferation. Using functional, biochemical, and imaging approaches, we also show a clear cell cycle bias for L1 retrotransposition that peaks during the S phase. Our observations provide a basis for novel interpretations about the nature of nuclear and cytoplasmic L1 ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) and the potential role of DNA replication in L1 retrotransposition.

Glyphosate Resistance and EPSPS Gene Duplication: Convergent Evolution in Multiple Plant Species.

One of the increasingly widespread mechanisms of resistance to the herbicide glyphosate is copy number variation (CNV) of the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) gene. EPSPS gene duplication has been reported in 8 weed species, ranging from 3 to 5 extra copies to more than 150 extra copies. In the case of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri), a section of >300 kb containing EPSPS and many other genes has been replicated and inserted at new loci throughout the genome, resulting in significant increase in total genome size. The replicated sequence contains several classes of mobile genetic elements including helitrons, raising the intriguing possibility of extra-chromosomal replication of the EPSPS-containing sequence. In kochia (Kochia scoparia), from 3 to more than 10 extra EPSPS copies are arranged as a tandem gene duplication at one locus. In the remaining 6 weed species that exhibit EPSPS gene duplication, little is known about the underlying mechanisms of gene duplication or their entire sequence. There is mounting evidence that adaptive gene amplification is an important mode of evolution in the face of intense human-mediated selection pressure. The convergent evolution of CNVs for glyphosate resistance in weeds, through at least 2 different mechanisms, may be indicative of a more general importance for this mechanism of adaptation in plants. CNVs warrant further investigation across plant functional genomics for adaptation to biotic and abiotic stresses, particularly for adaptive evolution on rapid time scales.

Mobile Genetic Elements and Evolution of CRISPR-Cas Systems: All the Way There and Back.

The Clustered Regularly Interspaced Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated proteins (Cas) systems of bacterial and archaeal adaptive immunity show multifaceted evolutionary relationships with at least five classes of mobile genetic elements (MGE). First, the adaptation module of CRISPR-Cas that is responsible for the formation of the immune memory apparently evolved from a Casposon, a self-synthesizing transposon that employs the Cas1 protein as the integrase and might have brought additional cas genes to the emerging immunity loci. Second, a large subset of type III CRISPR-Cas systems recruited a reverse transcriptase from a Group II intron, providing for spacer acquisition from RNA. Third, effector nucleases of Class 2 CRISPR-Cas systems that are responsible for the recognition and cleavage of the target DNA were derived from transposon-encoded TnpB nucleases, most likely, on several independent occasions. Fourth, accessory nucleases in some variants of types I and III toxin and type VI effectors RNases appear to be ultimately derived from toxin nucleases of microbial toxin–antitoxin modules. Fifth, the opposite direction of evolution is manifested in the recruitment of CRISPR-Cas systems by a distinct family of Tn7-like transposons that probably exploit the capacity of CRISPR-Cas to recognize unique DNA sites to facilitate transposition as well as by bacteriophages that employ them to cope with host defense. Additionally, individual Cas proteins, such as the Cas4 nuclease, were recruited by bacteriophages and transposons. The two-sided evolutionary connection between CRISPR-Cas and MGE fits the “guns for hire” paradigm whereby homologous enzymatic machineries, in particular nucleases, are shuttled between MGE and defense systems and are used alternately as means of offense or defense.

The dynamics of mobile promoters: Enhanced stability in promoter regions

Mobile promoters are emerging as a new class of mobile genetic elements, first identified by examining prokaryote genome sequences, and more recently confirmed by experimental observations in bacteria. Recent datasets have identified over 40,000 putative mobile promoters in sequenced prokaryote genomes, however only one-third of these are in regions of the genome directly upstream from coding sequences, that is, in promoter regions. The presence of many promoter sequences in non-promoter regions is unexplained. Here we develop a general mathematical model for the dynamics of mobile promoters, extending previous work to capture the dynamics both within and outside promoter regions. From this general model, we apply rigorous model selection techniques to identify which parameters are statistically justified in describing the available mobile promoter data, and find best-fit values of these parameters. Our results suggest that high rates of horizontal gene transfer maintain the population of mobile promoters in promoter regions, and that once established at these sites, mobile promoters are rarely lost, but are commonly copied to other genomic regions. In contrast, mobile promoter copies in non-promoter regions are more numerous and more volatile, experiencing substantially higher rates of duplication, loss and diversification.

CsrT Represents a New Class of csrA-Like Regulatory Genes Associated with Integrative Conjugative Elements of Legionella pneumophila.

Bacterial evolution is accelerated by mobile genetic elements. To spread horizontally and to benefit the recipient bacteria, genes encoded on these elements must be properly regulated. Among the legionellae are multiple integrative conjugative elements (ICEs) that each encode a paralog of the broadly conserved regulator csrA. Using bioinformatic analyses, we deduced that specific csrA paralogs are coinherited with particular lineages of the type IV secretion system that mediates horizontal spread of its ICE, suggesting a conserved regulatory interaction. As a first step to investigate the contribution of csrA regulators to this class of mobile genetic elements, we analyzed here the activity of the csrA paralog encoded on Legionella pneumophila ICE-βox. Deletion of this gene, which we name csrT, had no observed effect under laboratory conditions. However, ectopic expression of csrT abrogated the protection to hydrogen peroxide and macrophage degradation that ICE-βox confers to L. pneumophila. When ectopically expressed, csrT also repressed L. pneumophila flagellin production and motility, a function similar to the core genome's canonical csrA. Moreover, csrT restored the repression of motility to csrA mutants of Bacillus subtilis, a finding consistent with the predicted function of CsrT as an mRNA binding protein. Since all known ICEs of legionellae encode coinherited csrA-type IV secretion system pairs, we postulate that CsrA superfamily proteins regulate ICE activity to increase their horizontal spread, thereby expanding L. pneumophila versatility. ICEs are mobile DNA elements whose type IV secretion machineries mediate spread among bacterial populations. All surveyed ICEs within the Legionella genus also carry paralogs of the essential life cycle regulator csrA. It is striking that the csrA loci could be classified into distinct families based on either their sequence or the subtype of the adjacent type IV secretion system locus. To investigate whether ICE-encoded csrA paralogs are bona fide regulators, we analyzed ICE-βox as a model system. When expressed ectopically, its csrA paralog inhibited multiple ICE-βox phenotypes, as well as the motility of not only Legionella but also Bacillus subtilis. Accordingly, we predict that CsrA regulators equip legionellae ICEs to promote their spread via dedicated type IV secretion systems.

Circulating nucleic acids: a new class of physiological mobile genetic elements

Mobile genetic elements play a major role in shaping biotic genomes and bringing about evolutionary transformations. Herein, a new class of mobile genetic elements is proposed in the form of circulating nucleic acids (CNAs) derived from the billions of cells that die in the body every day due to normal physiology and that act intra-corporeally. A recent study shows that CNAs can freely enter into healthy cells, integrate into their genomes by a unique mechanism and cause damage to their DNA. Being ubiquitous and continuously arising, CNA-induced DNA damage may be the underlying cause of ageing, ageing-related disabilities and the ultimate demise of the organism. Thus, DNA seems to act in the paradoxical roles of both preserver and destroyer of life. This new class of mobile genetic element may be relevant not only to multi-cellular organisms with established circulatory systems, but also to other multi-cellular organisms in which intra-corporeal mobility of nucleic acids may be mediated via the medium of extra-cellular fluid.

Circulating nucleic acids: a new class of physiological mobile genetic elements.

Mobile genetic elements play a major role in shaping biotic genomes and bringing about evolutionary transformations. Herein, a new class of mobile genetic elements is proposed in the form of circulating nucleic acids (CNAs) derived from the billions of cells that die in the body every day due to normal physiology and that act intra-corporeally. A recent study shows that CNAs can freely enter into healthy cells, integrate into their genomes by a unique mechanism and cause damage to their DNA. Being ubiquitous and continuously arising, CNA-induced DNA damage may be the underlying cause of ageing, ageing-related disabilities and the ultimate demise of the organism. Thus, DNA seems to act in the paradoxical roles of both preserver and destroyer of life. This new class of mobile genetic element may be relevant not only to multi-cellular organisms with established circulatory systems, but also to other multi-cellular organisms in which intra-corporeal mobility of nucleic acids may be mediated via the medium of extra-cellular fluid.

Extinction probabilities and stationary distributions of mobile genetic elements in prokaryotes: The birth–death-diversification model

Theoretical approaches are essential to our understanding of the complex dynamics of mobile genetic elements (MGEs) within genomes. Recently, the birth–death-diversification model was developed to describe the dynamics of mobile promoters (MPs), a particular class of MGEs in prokaryotes. A unique feature of this model is that genetic diversification of elements was included. To explore the implications of diversification on the longterm fate of MGE lineages, in this contribution we analyze the extinction probabilities, extinction times and equilibrium solutions of the birth–death-diversification model. We find that diversification increases both the survival and growth rate of MGE families, but the strength of this effect depends on the rate of horizontal gene transfer (HGT). We also find that the distribution of MGE families per genome is not necessarily monotonically decreasing, as observed for MPs, but may have a peak in the distribution that is related to the HGT rate. For MPs specifically, we find that new families have a high extinction probability, and predict that the number of MPs is increasing, albeit at a very slow rate. Additionally, we develop an extension of the birth–death-diversification model which allows MGEs in different regions of the genome, for example coding and non-coding, to be described by different rates. This extension may offer a potential explanation as to why the majority of MPs are located in non-promoter regions of the genome.