Class Position Research Articles

Manifesto and Capital : Two Theories of Capitalism

This paper investigates the differences between the theory of capitalism which underlies the Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848) and the one formulated in Marx’s “critique of political economy”. The differences in question concern (i) the historical origin of capitalism, (ii) long-term prospects of the working class under capitalism, and (iii) the fundamental nature of capitalist social reality. With respect to the first point, while the Manifesto views the emergence of capitalism as based in the expansion of commodity production and trade, Capital emphasizes the expropriation of immediate producers. Secondly, the 1848 text anticipates a worsening, in absolute terms, of the condition of the working class under capitalism. In contrast, Marx’s later account of accumulation allows for the growth of real wages and predicts a relative worsening of the position of the working class. And thirdly, while the Manifesto views capitalism as having made exploitation easier to discern, in Capital the focus is on fetishism and the “topsy-turvy” forms of appearance which mask the nature of social reality. As I argue, these differences are significant enough to speak of two different theories, and they boil down to the way the theories conceive of their object. On all three dimensions analyzed here – history, dynamics, and nature – Capital emphasizes the historical specificity of the capitalist mode of production in ways the Maniefsto did not account for.

Finding the balance: Commodification and marginality in Tāmaki Makaurau Auckland’s hip hop fashion

Hip hop fashion has transitioned from a grassroots, subcultural phenomenon into a multibillion-dollar industry intertwined with mainstream and luxury fashion. Partnerships between fashion brands and rappers financially benefit both parties and imbue each with legitimacy within global hip hop cultural values. This article explores these dynamics amongst contemporary rappers based in Tāmaki Makaurau Auckland, in Aotearoa New Zealand, a locale underserved by current literature on hip hop fashion and commercialization. The artists promote locally resonant anti-hegemonic positions – specifically, anti-colonial and anti-racist positions – from within hip hop’s ambivalent relationship to capitalist industry. These artists strive to find a balance between self-promotion and lucrative partnerships with international fashion brands, and subsequently negotiating that increased attention and industry position to empower their communities and the local hip hop fashion industry, authentically expressing their creativity, values, politics and identities. Additionally, they perform ambivalent class positions through their curation of second-hand, mainstream and upmarket and designer hip hop fashion garments, blurring boundaries of marginality and prosperity, which highlights continued issues of class and racial marginality in their communities. This article ultimately suggests that anti-hegemonic messaging and oppositional voices expressed in Aotearoa’s hip hop culture are not necessarily thwarted by capitalist industry and may even be enhanced in their force and reach through such relationships.

Siblings’ class destinations: a study of the Norwegian upper class

Abstract Do individuals in the upper class have siblings with similar class positions to themselves? Using data based on the entire registered population in Norway, this article describes brothers’ and sisters’ class destinations, with particular attention to the upper class and top wealth positions. The study first describes upper-class recruitment across families of different classes, finding similarities in siblings’ social mobility. Concerning upper-class reproduction, first- and secondborn siblings from families with top wealth are particularly likely to both reach upper-class positions. Second, the paper describes how upper-class members tend to have siblings with similar class positions to themselves in terms of both vertical class and horizontal positions according to individuals’ composition of cultural and economic capital. By adopting a class-theoretical framework for sibling outcomes, the work sheds light on the social connectedness between social class positions that emerge through intergenerational mobility. The wealthiest 0.2% are shown to have siblings who are disproportionally often situated in not only higher class positions but also the economic fraction of the upper and middle classes.

Can women bridge the gender class gap by choosing a gender-atypical field of study? A study based the on the German micro-census 1996–2016

ABSTRACT The persistence of gender-stereotyped subject choices is considered as a detrimental factor for women’s labour market opportunities. Against this background, the paper focusses on the labour market chances of women who graduated from a male-dominated field of study in higher education. We use a position in the upper service class as a criterion for successful job placement. Analyses of German micro-census data are conducted across labour market subsectors and over the period 1996–2016. Results show that class positions of women who graduated in male-dominated fields of study vary substantially by labour market segment. They are less likely than men to be employed in the upper service class specifically in large private sector firms, but at the same time more likely to be employed in the public sector. Over time, the private sector gender class gap has narrowed, but not disappeared.

Enhancing Noise-Robust Losses for Large-Scale Noisy Data Learning

Large annotated datasets inevitably contain noisy labels, which poses a major challenge for training deep neural networks as they easily memorize the labels. Noise-robust loss functions have emerged as a notable strategy to counteract this issue, but it remains challenging to create a robust loss function which is not susceptible to underfitting. Through a quantitative approach, this paper explores the limited overlap between the network output at initialization and regions of non-vanishing gradients of bounded loss functions in the initial learning phase. Using these insights, we address underfitting of several noise robust losses with a novel method denoted as logit bias, which adds a real number epsilon to the logit at the position of the correct class. The logit bias enables these losses to achieve state-of-the-art results, even on datasets like WebVision, consisting of over a million images from 1000 classes. In addition, we demonstrate that our method can be used to determine optimal parameters for several loss functions – without having to train networks. Remarkably, our method determines the hyperparameters based on the number of classes, resulting in loss functions which require zero dataset or noise-dependent parameters.

Familial ties and their impact on the class conditions of migrant nurses in the Republic of Ireland

Abstract This article examines how familial ties and kinship networks shape the class conditions of migrants in their host country. Using data from 61 semi-structured interviews with Filipino migrant nurses in Ireland, we examine the connection between familial social networks and their socioeconomic conditions in the host society. We argue that kinship ties and their local contexts continue to impinge on migrants' class position and class conditions in their destination country. The paper highlights the interconnections between complex social relations, social spaces, and class systems in shaping migrant social mobility in the destination country. It illustrates how class backgrounds in the home country are reproduced through their kinship ties. It also argues that while social ties are usually predicated on positive emotional bonds, some produce negative consequences that impede or delay the social mobility of migrants. Conversely, some social ties help migrants achieve their middle-class aspirations ahead of others.

A political economy of hope: Materialisations of social class and inequity in women's imaginings of alcohol (free) futures.

A political economy of hope: Materialisations of social class and inequity in women's imaginings of alcohol (free) futures.

Intelligentsia in a neo-Gramscian reading and global political economic practice

The article considers the dynamics of changes in the concept of intellectuals in neo-Gramscian theory, starting from the designation of the concept of “organic” intellectuals in the “Prison Notebooks” of A. Gramsci himself and ending with modern authors working within the research area of “global political economy”. As a key figure who adapted the Gramscian theory to modern realities, we consider R. Cox, from whom two lines appear to diverge - the “Coxians” proper, represented by English-speaking authors, including W. Robinson and S. Gill, whose work we examine, and the line of the Amsterdam school, represented by K. van der Pijl and B. van Apeldoorn. In accordance with the intellectual history approach, the emphasis is put on the interests pursued by these authors in defending certain theses about the subject under study. The main position of Gramscian theory that they develop is the division between “organic” and “traditional” intellectuals. Within the framework of the central theme of their research - the position of the transnational capitalist class - these authors offer various characteristics of the “organic intellectuals” distinguished within this particular class. Thus, W. Robinson characterizes it as “apparatus” in which the core of owners and managers of transnational capital is combined with “ideologists and intellectuals”. S. Gill's analysis of the work of the Trilateral Commission provides an example of this process. In turn, the distinctive feature of van der Pijl's approach is that he characterizes intellectuals serving the interests of transnational capital as “cadres” - a group, which enjoys a certain level of independence. In contrast, B. Apeldoorn considers this group - “professionals” in his terminology - to be an organic part of the transnational class. However, the common line for all Neo-Gramscian researchers is their actual opposition, reflecting the interests of global labor, to the position of neoliberal intellectuals working in the interests of capital. At the same time, the orientation of the texts analyzed in this article indicates that they are more aimed at strengthening the position of the intelligentsia itself, and mainly of the faction that is focused on strengthening the international bureaucracy in opposition to transnational capital.

Can Differing Occupational Class Positions Explain Migrant Health Inequalities? Differences in Trajectories of Subjective Health Between Migrants and Native Germans over Time

Abstract Migrants living in postindustrial countries are confronted with various socioeconomic challenges, including lower incomes, extended working hours, and lower occupational statuses than natives. Although health disparities linked to occupational positions have frequently been documented, they remain a relatively unexplored factor in the explanation of health gaps over time between migrants and native populations. To address this issue, we utilized longitudinal data spanning from 2002 to 2018 from the German Socio-Economic Panel to investigate disparities in physical health–related quality of life across different migrant and native German cohorts and their associations with occupational class position. Our findings reveal that overall lower occupational class positions can account for the health disparities observed between migrants and native Germans. Further, our study unveils complex relationships between initial health conditions (intercepts), changes in health over time (slopes), region of origin (European migrants, non-European migrants, and native Germans), and gender. These nuanced outcomes underscore the importance of adopting approaches that consider both region of origin and gender when seeking to enhance working conditions and facilitate access to the labor market for diverse populations.

Deconstruction Santiago’s Class Identity in The Old Man and The Sea

In the modern era, social status is often judged based on material possessions, yet this perspective does not always reflect an individual’s true economic condition. Santiago, the protagonist in The Old Man and The Sea, is traditionally perceived as a poor fisherman. However, a deconstructive analysis challenges this notion by revealing contradictions in his social identity. This study aims to analyze Santiago’s class position using Jacques Derrida’s deconstruction approach combined with Karl Marx’s theory of social class. The research employs a qualitative method with textual analysis to examine Santiago’s ambiguous status. The findings indicate that although Santiago appears impoverished, his ownership of fishing tools and freedom over his labor resembles traits of the bourgeoisie rather than the proletariat. Additionally, his resilience and self-perception reflect a level of arrogance, contradicting his supposed humility. The study concludes that Santiago’s character embodies both proletarian and bourgeois elements, demonstrating how class identity is not fixed but fluid and open to multiple interpretations. This analysis highlights the complexity of literary characters and challenges conventional class distinctions through a deconstructive lens.

In-depth CBCT Analysis of Pharyngeal Airway Dimensions and Hyoid Bone Position in Adults with Skeletal Class II Malocclusions: A Cross-Sectional Study

Abstract Background: Skeletal Class II malocclusion is frequently associated with altered craniofacial morphology, potentially impacting pharyngeal airway dimensions and hyoid bone position. Measuring airway dimensions and hyoid position in skeletal Class II malocclusion is crucial for assessing airway obstruction risk and planning effective treatments to improve breathing and reduce complications associated with obstructive sleep apnea. Aim: This study aims to investigate the dimensions of the pharyngeal airway and the positioning of the hyoid bone in specific subgroups of skeletal Class II malocclusion. Methods: Cone-beam computed tomography images of 124 untreated adult patients (80 females; 44 males) with skeletal Class II malocclusion were retrospectively analyzed. Patients were classified into hypodivergent (Hypo), normodivergent (Normo), and hyperdivergent (Hype) groups based on cephalometric analysis (FMA, AFH, PFH, and gonial angle). Volumetric rendering was performed to assess pharyngeal airway dimensions (width, length, and area) in four cross-sectional planes, using 15 anatomical landmarks and the Frankfort horizontal plane as a reference. Hyoid bone position was also assessed using linear and angular measurements. Statistical analyses included ANOVA and Tukey’s post hoc tests (P < 0.05). Results: A statistically significant difference was observed in lower pharyngeal plane height, with the Hype group exhibiting reduced dimensions compared to the Hypo and Normo groups. Significant differences were also found in the hyoid position, specifically at the C3Me and C3H levels, indicating a more posterior position in the Hype group. Conclusion: This study demonstrates a significant association between vertical skeletal patterns and both pharyngeal airway dimensions and hyoid bone position in adult Class II malocclusion. The reduced airway space and posterior hyoid position in the Hype group suggest a potential increased risk of upper airway obstruction. These findings emphasize the importance of considering the vertical facial type in the diagnosis and treatment planning of Class II patients, potentially influencing orthodontic and surgical interventions to optimize both dentofacial aesthetics and respiratory function.

Against culture? Class analysis, strategic essentialism and methodological nationalism after Beverley Skeggs’ Formations of Class and Gender

Beverley Skeggs’ first book ( Formations of Class and Gender [ FoC&G]) has been central to the study of class and culture, pushing it towards a more sustained consideration of intersections with gender and, to a lesser extent, race. Yet, some tensions within Skeggs’ work remain unrecognised, and hence unresolved, in recent debates about class, culture and their link with intersecting inequalities. This article argues that FoC&G encapsulates two different approaches to the study of class and culture and that the distinction between these approaches has a significant bearing on how sociologists do class analysis and, potentially, imagine class politics. On the one hand, Skeggs’ focus on upwardly mobile working-class women, her longitudinal methodology and her heterodox theoretical toolkit challenge the analytical conflation of class positions, dispositions and practices, providing important tools to research class trajectories (as opposed to class positions) and class formations as socially heterogeneous. On the other hand, this approach coexists with a strategic essentialism that emphasises broad differences between working- and middle-class dispositions, and with a methodological nationalism that centres whiteness and, more subtly, citizenship status. I show that this combination of strategic essentialism and methodological nationalism remains influential in later class analysis, particularly as Bourdieu’s influence grew and Skeggs’ theoretical originality was downplayed. I argue that the anti-essentialism of FoC&G – its reflection on the representational limits of class analysis – remains important for future research on multi-status class formations. However, it needs to be expanded towards a deeper understanding of how strategic essentialism and methodological nationalism influence class analysis’s representational strategies.

The emotional landscape of social class in English education

The last ten years has seen increasing concern about the wellbeing of children and young people in schools across the globe. Growing evidence of anxiety and stress have accompanied falling levels of life satisfaction among school children. This article adopts a Bourdieusian analysis, working with concepts of habitus, field and symbolic violence to understand the affective consequences of class inequalities in education. As the article tries to show through a focus on schooling in England, there are different types of class thinking and feeling that characterise different social class positions within the field of education.

Different understandings, different responses: experiences of racism among highly educated, second generation Black Germans.

This article argues that there is a close relationship between individuals' understandings of specific incidents of racism, their ideas of how racism operates, and their (repertoires of) responses to such incidents. The argument is based on a qualitative interview study with 21 highly educated Black Germans with at least one parent born outside Germany, and draws on both the extant literature on responses to experiences of ethnoracial exclusion and research into how people make sense of such experiences. The analysis specifically explores two contrasting types of interviewees: Type 1 felt that they were constantly and potentially always affected by racism and had a broad knowledge of racism. These interviewees recounted many different incidents, many of which they clearly labelled as "racist." Type 1 interviewees reported a variety of response options, with direct confrontation being one of them. In stark contrast, Type 2 respondents tended to normalise the relatively few incidents they mentioned or indicate only feelings of unease. They also believed that they were largely unaffected by racism, had a less deep understanding of racism and tended to respond to incidents of exclusion in ways that allowed the encounter to continue without disruption. Overall, the study calls for greater attention to racialised people's meaning-making in relation to concrete incidents of exclusion and to their knowledge of racism. This requires methodological adaptations to qualitative interview research, which remains the most popular method for exploring experiences of racism. In particular, the study highlights the importance of understanding the ways in which respondents talk about their experiences (categorisation, indication of feelings of unease, and normalisation). It also emphasises the need to go beyond considering only interviewees' responses to direct questions about their experiences of racism and/or discrimination and/or incidents clearly categorised by interviewees as, for example, "racist." Moreover, reconstructing interviewees' knowledge about racism offers a path towards understanding not only their sense-making but also their repertoires of responses. This, in turn, provides insight into why individuals of comparable class position and educational background respond to racism in different ways.

The fog of classism: Where middle-class white parents of young white children may get lost in their antiracist parenting aspirations.

Aspiring antiracist White parents report feeling stuck and uncertain about how to socialize their young White children into antiracism. Most of the scholarship focused on this population, their ideas, and practices overlooks the intersection of their class positionalities with their attitudes and behaviors regarding antiracist parenting. The present study offers insights into the dynamics of class-related beliefs and antiracist socialization among middle- to upper-middle-class White parents. Using methods informed by critical thematic analysis, we interrogated the in-depth interviews of 19 White parents of young White children who self-identified as antiracist. All parents in the sample identified as middle class, and all but one parent identified as women. We find that, despite the sincere intentions of this group, these parents, through rhetorical and behavioral processes, ultimately evade acknowledging for themselves and with their children the material ways in which their families benefit from and maintain an unjust status quo. We describe three interrelated themes that characterize the prevailing patterns of ideas and behaviors among our parent participants on this subject: class confusion, class attribution error, and complexity avoidance. We argue that these patterns reflect the embeddedness of these parents within the dominant racial and class regimes of contemporary U.S. society: White supremacy and neoliberalism. Our discussion highlights the inconsistencies and contradictions in our participants' beliefs and practices and highlights ideological blinders that antiracist interventions can address to help parents counteract the influence of these systems and more fully realize their antiracist parenting goals. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Class and Gender Violence: Understanding a Case of Wealthy (Online) Influencers and Misogyny

Our research examines a unique case of the complex interplay between two wealthy brothers and their actions of gender-based violence. In presenting the case of the Tate brothers, British influencers who settled in Romania, we explore how they gained notoriety through their wealth, their online presence, and controversial ideas that promote misogyny. In a survey involving 56 young and young–mature participants, we highlighted perceptions of the Tate brothers alongside attitudes toward wealth, gender roles and norms, and misogyny. Our findings indicate a predominantly negative sentiment towards the Tate brothers, particularly regarding their wealthy class position and how their class power is unfolded through misogyny in their online presence. This study underscores the urgent need for national and international authorities and NGOs to improve the surveillance of misogynistic men’s discourses and practices to combat violence against women. Additionally, it highlights the importance of increasing awareness about the detrimental consequences of gender inequality created through the triadic nexus of class privilege, masculinity, and misogyny.

“An inner core feeling”?: Nationalism, Western capitalism, and Bengali women's class‐based mothering ideologies

AbstractObjectiveWe analyze motherhood identities among middle‐ and working‐class women in urban Bengal.BackgroundWesternized societies encourage women to pursue careers and childrearing. Researchers examine this tension in diverse Western contexts and the Indian middle class. We add to existing work by comparing Indian women's motherhood ideologies across social class.MethodsWe use in‐depth qualitative interviews with mothers in structured (i.e., middle‐class) and unstructured (i.e., working‐class) economic sectors.ResultsEconomically privileged mothers diminished the importance of paid work and emphasized Western mothering strategies. Mothers in unstructured sectors drew on nation‐building rhetoric to construct socially valued mothering identities.ConclusionsMainstream mothering approaches (i.e., popular images of childrearing by upper‐class women) benefit patriarchal capitalist social structures by encouraging women to work for pay and take primary responsibility for home and family. Mothers' social class and status positions in historical and societal context(s) influence the tools (i.e., forms of capital) they have available to parent their children and construct valued mothering identities.ImplicationsStrategies marginalized mothers use to construct mothering identities when faced with dominant exclusionary narratives of a “good mother” can be understood and used strategically. Embracing ideologies that allow women to maintain integrity in the face of stigmatization has transformative potential for policymaking and service provision.

Temporary Migrant Workers in Transnational Space: Understanding Class Ambiguity

This paper has two main objectives. First, it delves into the complex dynamics of social inequality among migrant workers who, being transnational, often face a dual or multiple class and status positions depending on their physical location, and their ethno-national, and gender backgrounds. Their class position becomes uncertain, fluid, and unstable. Drawing comparisons with their sedentary counterparts, the ambiguity of their class positions in the home and host countries becomes apparent. Migrant workers, often driven by economic necessity or geopolitical factors, face unique challenges that distinguish their experiences from those in settled communities. By examining the multifaceted dimensions of social inequality, this paper aims to shed light on the distinct characteristics and implications of inequality within migrant populations while also highlighting key differences from their sedentary counterparts in their societies of origin. Second, this paper argues that the concept of class, as used in mainstream sociology, falls short when applied to transnational migrants. Yet, the concept of class has not outlived its utility, despite the challenges the case of migrant laborers poses. Conceptual innovation is needed for tackling the subject of class in the context of transnationalism, which this paper strives to provide by interrelating social class with occupational status and exploring their effects on transnational migrant workers.

Work–family conflict: A classed phenomenon?

Prior research has found that high levels of work–family conflict negatively impact women's well-being. However, variations in the effects of work–family conflict on women based on class have been understudied. Moreover, most estimates of work–family conflict did not distinguish between work-to-family and family-to-work conflict. This study uses data from a cross-sectional phone survey of Icelandic women to assess the association between work–family conflict (in both directions) and symptoms of depression and anxiety among women of differing class positions. Key findings showed that (a) work-to-family and family-to-work conflict were positively related to symptoms of anxiety and depression among all women, but these relationships were contingent on class; (b) working-class women are more likely to experience symptoms of depression and anxiety due to work-to-family conflict than women of higher social strata; and (c) working-class women are more likely to experience symptoms of depression due to family-to-work conflict than women of higher social strata. The results demonstrate the need for further research on how women's ability to reconcile work and family varies by class and how public policy can account for such differences.

“I’m giving up on Brazil”: shifting migration aspirations and capabilities in the face of simultaneous crises

Based on the aspirations-capabilities framework, this paper analyses how the overlap of three shocks - a national socio-political crisis, an economic downturn, and a socio-environmental disaster - influenced households' international migration aspirations, decisions and strategies. The study uses a mixed methods approach, including a statistically representative survey and eighteen semi-structured interviews conducted with households with and without international migration experience in Governador Valadares, one of the main emigration hotspots in Brazil. It argues that, despite similar representations of international migration across socioeconomic strata, people’s aspirations and capabilities to migrate in the context of multidimensional crises vary across class positions. These external shocks shaped migration aspirations not only instrumentally, diminishing access to financial and natural resources, but also symbolically, through feelings of dismay. The working poor report living in a ‘permanent state of crisis’ and see migration as a tool for improving living conditions. For the lower middle classes, these crises have rendered visible the mismatch between their (augmented) expectations, built during the early 2000s era of optimism, and their effective chances of social mobility. Migration, therefore, appears as a solution for accessing services they could once afford. For the upper-middle classes, these crises represented a rupture, with migration now being considered as a way of maintaining their quality of life and class position.