While corpus-based instruction has demonstrated efficacy in English-as-a-second-language writing development, its application to non-Indo-European languages remains limited. This study investigates whether integrating corpus-driven activities into Kazakh language classrooms can bolster writing proficiency, grammatical accuracy, and learner engagement among Russian-dominant seventh graders. Using a quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test study with 112 Russian-dominant seventh graders in Kazakhstan, this study examined whether integrating corpus-driven activities into Kazakh language classrooms can improve writing proficiency, grammatical accuracy, and learner engagement. A quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test design was employed, comparing an experimental group receiving corpus-supplemented instruction with a control group receiving standard textbook-based instruction. Repeated-measures analyses of covariance revealed that the six-month-long intervention yielded significant improvements in lexical quality and grammatical word order, alongside moderate gains in verb conjugation. While writing accuracy and case use showed within-group progress, between-group differences were non-significant. Self-reported boredom declined in the treatment group, though the effect size was small and post-intervention comparisons were statistically indistinguishable. Findings suggest that corpus-integrated pedagogy enhances lexical sophistication and select grammatical competencies in L2 Kazakh writing, while its impact on overall accuracy and affective engagement remains nuanced. The study contributes to the scarce literature on data-driven learning in non-Anglophone contexts by demonstrating the partial transferability of corpus methods to agglutinative languages, with implications for L2 writing instruction in typologically diverse settings.

Teaching the Verb Conjugation System According to the CEFR (Series III)

This article explores the verb as the semantic and grammatical core of the sentence and argues that verbal predicates have a broader meaning potential than their basic lexical semantics. Drawing on S.D.Kasnelson’s approach, it is shown that a verbal predicate not only denotes an event or state but also encodes a “sentence blueprint” through its valency structure (i.e., a set of semantic slots to be filled by arguments). The paper notes that modern linguistics lacks a universally accepted semantic classification of verbs; therefore, a paradigmatic perspective is employed, distinguishing verbs of activity, state, property, and relation on the basis of invariant meaning. The main focus is the classification of mental (cognitive) verbs into microfields, including verbs of sensation, desire, perception (general perception, visual perception, auditory perception, olfactory perception), attention, emotional experience and attitude, thinking, and memory. The analysis is supported by Uzbek and English examples drawn from literary sources. The study contributes to the systematization of the mental lexicon and provides implications for contrastive semantics, lexicography, translation, and language teaching

Spanish has three verb classes, identified by three different theme vowels: -a, e, and -i. The verbs show three different types of paradigm levelling, whereby verb class distinctions are neutralised, either in whole or in part. These three types of levelling interact in a nontrivial manner with patterns of root allomorphy. I analyse both the levellings and the correlations with root allomorphy in terms of the nanosyntactic root size paradigm, which assumes that differences in the size of root are responsible for the choice of the theme vowel. The levellings will be shown to follow from possible variations in root size of verbs internal to a single verb class, causing roots to `shrink', and become the same size as the roots of another verb class. As a result, they behave like the verbs of that other class, giving rise to the levelling phenomenon.

This study examines the phenomenon of syntactic interference arising from the structural differences between Indonesian (L1) and German (L2) in compositions written by B1-level students. The primary objective was to systematically identify, categorize, and analyze the specific forms of negative transfer. Utilizing the error analysis framework established by Corder and James, the data comprising 21 student compositions, were rigorously classified into systematic errors and incidental mistakes. The analysis revealed 15 distinct types of syntactic interference, predominantly involving critical German structures such as verb conjugation, word order (in both main and subordinate clauses), and the use of prepositions. The most frequently occurring form of negative transfer was observed in German verb conjugation errors. The overwhelming classification of observed instances as errors confirms a deep-seated negative transfer from the mother tongue to the target language system. These findings possess significant educational value, as they precisely map the areas where Indonesian speakers require the most targeted linguistic intervention. The results strongly recommend the integration of a contrastive learning approach and emphasize the urgent need for reinforcement activities that specifically build syntactic awareness in German instruction. This research serves as an evidence-based tool for practitioners, guiding the refinement of curriculum and pedagogical strategies to effectively minimize recurrent interference and enhance the precision of L2 acquisition at the intermediate level.

Abstract - Marathi is one of the popular oldest languages of India and possesses the greater syntactic complexity. Nouns, verbs and compound words of this language have very clear and simple rules that make the learning of the language an easy task for anybody. However, a more effective tool is required to consolidate the particularity of the higher-level grammar, especially the regional dialects. In the last few years there has been a lot of work done in the era of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Natural Language Processing (NLP) where various languages related complicated tasks have been made easy. Pre-trained generative AI models like BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers), GPT-3 (Generative Pre-trained Transformer), T5 (Text-to-Text Transfer Transformer) and many others hold much promise in different language uses like text generation, translation, and grammar checks. These models can formulate, interpreting and modifying any linguistic behaviour that might be useful in handling other challenges of Marathi language such as noun declensions and verb conjugations. AI model built from the transformer architecture can be adapted to handle several of linguistic problems in Marathi language that involves syntax analysis and error detection. This paper presents a generative AI model for learning the Marathi grammar which is further categorized into two parts. The first part of the study is devoted to the elementary grammar training, and the second part is dedicated to the intermediate and advanced levels. Using generative AI, this current model gives higher accuracy than rule-based system and presents effective ideas towards modern grammar. Also, this model became improving tools in computational linguistics for regional languages and for promoting language education. Keywords: Marathi language, generative AI, BERT, GPT-3, T5, computational linguistics

Oscillatory dynamics of inflectional processing: teasing apart defaultness and productivity effects in Russian verbs.

The article provides a comprehensive analysis of dialectal forms of the conditional mood in Boyko dialects. The research is based on contemporary field recordings of Boyko speech, folklore texts, and linguistic-geographical sources, which make it possible to trace the areal distribution and variability of grammatical forms. It has been established that the conditional mood in Boiko dialects is represented both by normative models with the particle би (б) and by archaic constructions with personal affixes (-м, -с, -смо, -сте, etc.), which derive from forms of the auxiliary verb быти. These models of the conditional mood attest to the preservation of ancient morphological mechanisms in contemporary dialectal speech. The observed variability attests to the combination of archaic elements with new trends in development, caused both by the internal dynamics of the dialectal system and the influence of the literary language. Compound forms with the meaning of the past perfect tense, which arose as a result of the contamination of the conditional mood with forms of the past perfect tense, have also been recorded. The results of the study deepen our knowledge of the morphological structure of Boyko dialects and outline prospects for further study of the verbal paradigm of Ukrainian dialects.

ABSTRACT Perlmutter’s unaccusativity hypothesis suggests that intransitive verbs can be classified into two verb classes: unergative and unaccusative. The arguments of unergatives exhibit syntactic and semantic properties similar to the subjects of transitive verbs, whereas the arguments of unaccusatives share resemblances in these aspects with the objects of transitive verbs. In Mandarin, the inversion of subjects serves as a diagnostic sentence for distinguishing between these two verb classes. Although previous studies employing this diagnostic have revealed semantics-driven gradients between unergatives and unaccusatives, this has not been extensively explored in the domain of child language acquisition. Our study examined whether Mandarin-speaking children’s acquisition of unaccusativity is mediated by more articulated semantic event types, distinguished as core and non-core in Sorace (2000) hierarchy. Through a forced-choice task and an acceptability judgment task, we found that children under the age of 7 struggled to differentiate between change-of-state verbs (non-core unaccusatives) and unergatives using subject-inversion. However, they exhibited this ability with core unaccusatives, namely change-of-location verbs. Our findings suggest that Mandarin-speaking children develop an early understanding of unaccusativity for core unaccusatives, but not for non-core unaccusatives. We propose that the acquisition of Mandarin unaccusativity may be better understood through a more sophisticated framework, such as Sorace’s hierarchy, where the semantic differences within unaccusatives can explain the trajectory of learning.

This study aims to identify the characteristics of errors that commonly occur in the written compositions of intermediate-level Japanese language learners at the tertiary level in Indonesia. The participants were third-year students (fifth semester) enrolled in the Japanese Literature Program, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Universitas Hasanuddin, who took the Japanese Composition course during the odd semester of the 2025/2026 academic year. The data analyzed consisted of in-class writing assignments (Compositions 3–5) and final examination compositions. Compositions 1 and 2 were excluded from the analysis because, at that stage, students had not yet received instruction on the use of genkōyōshi and paragraph structure. Compositions 3–5 were produced through a staged instructional process that included teacher guidance on writing, draft preparation, and group-based revision through peer response activities. In contrast, the final examination compositions were written under time constraints, with a 50-minute limit and without access to dictionaries or other reference materials. In this study, the analysis focused exclusively on errors that appeared repeatedly and were shared by multiple learners, while individual or incidental errors were excluded from consideration. The findings indicate that errors related to basic grammatical aspects, such as particle usage and verb conjugation, were relatively limited. By contrast, errors associated with the use of genkōyōshi, paragraph organization, stylistic choices, and the mixing of written and spoken language were consistently observed. This article further discusses the underlying factors contributing to these errors by considering instructional practices, differences in writing conditions between assignments and examinations, and the potential influence of artificial intelligence technologies in the writing process, which is interpreted as a contextual consideration based on the learning environment rather than as an empirically verified finding of this study.

The acquisition of Japanese passive sentences presents a well-documented challenge for Chinese-speaking learners. However, longitudinal research on how learners in foreign language (JFL) classrooms comprehend and process these structures remains scarce. This study addresses this gap by tracking five beginner-level learners in a Chinese high school over approximately 18 months through repeated grammaticality judgment and error correction tasks. We examined five sub-constructs: voice selection, verb conjugation, possessor passive, indirect passive, and agent selection. Results indicated that the core difficulty of learners lay in locating errors rather than correcting them. Developmental trajectories diverged significantly across sub-constructs. Verb conjugation and indirect passives improved rapidly, consistent with the role of input-driven noticing. In contrast, agent selection and voice choice remained persistently difficult, while possessor passives exhibited a U-shaped development pattern, indicating interlanguage restructuring. Crucially, learners heavily relied on a “ni + passive” form chunk as a local processing cue-a strategy explainable by Andersen’s One-to-One Principle and reinforced by textbook bias. This led to systematic overuse and omission errors. The findings underscore that JFL learners’ acquisition of passives is hindered by a bottleneck in metalinguistic error identification, uneven development across construction types, and dependence on overly simplistic processing strategies. Pedagogical implications highlight the need for instruction that enhances form-meaning mapping and contextualized practice to foster more flexible and accurate usage.

This article explores the classification of motion verbs in Russian and Uzbek, focusing on semantic, aspectual, and morphological criteria. Motion verbs are central in expressing direction, manner, and the temporal structure of movement. In Russian, motion verbs are traditionally classified as unidirectional vs multidirectional, perfective vs imperfective, and single vs iterative. In Uzbek, classification relies on directional suffixes, serial verb constructions, and aspectual markers, reflecting the agglutinative nature of the language. Comparative analysis highlights both typological differences and functional similarities in how motion is represented across Slavic and Turkic languages.

In vectorial embeddings of word meaning, semantic features often reflect consistent directions-or axes-within a representational space. A classic example is gender: the vector spanning " boy "→" girl " can be added to the embedding for " king " to predict " queen ." Here we show that the same principle governs semantically driven neural responses in the human brain. We recorded single-neuron activity in three brain regions while participants listened to podcasts. Across fifteen analogical categories -including gender, number, and antonymy-we observed consistent vectorial directions, resulting in parallelogram structure within the neural manifold. Among pronouns, vectors corresponding to grammatical case, number, person, and possession obeyed the principle of commutativity, resulting in a prismatic structure, demonstrating that semantic axes can be factorized. We found parallelogram structure in all three regions, with some regional specialization: noun pluralization was more robust in the hippocampus than in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) or orbitofrontal cortex, whereas verbal conjugation effects were more robust in the ACC. Finally, we found evidence for partial functional specialization at the neuron level: neurons most strongly involved in one analogy type were less involved in others. These principles parallel representational structure observed in large language models. Together, these findings support a geometric basis for analogical reasoning.

The aim of the research is to expand the corpus of auxiliary components involved in the formation of analytic grammemes of the Ingush verb by identifying the structural features of analytic forms within the verbal conjugation paradigm. The article analyzes analytic trends in the modern Ingush language, where analytic forms are widely represented in the verbal system. Particular attention is paid to the study of the influence of auxiliary verbs on the semantic and grammatical meanings of analytic grammemes and the potential for verbal words not traditionally recognized as auxiliary verbs to function as service components. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that, for the first time, based on an analysis of functional features in examples from literary works, the lexeme “даг1а” (в, й, б) – “to sit” has been included among the auxiliary elements of Ingush analytic verb forms. As a result of the research, it was established that the verb “даг1а” (в, й, б), like other verbs with existential lexical meaning, can participate in the formation of Ingush analytic verb forms as an auxiliary component, acting as a modifier of the grammatical semantics of analytic structures.

This study is dedicated to the in-depth investigation of the semantics of verbs that signify the process of removal. The focus of detailed analysis is the modeling of removal frames—structured mental representations that reflect typical scenarios associated with the disappearance or movement of objects from a specific space. The research concentrates on identifying universal and specific features in the semantic organization of French and Russian verbs that express various aspects of removal. The theoretical framework is based on the principles of cognitive linguistics, particularly the concepts of frame semantics by Charles Fillmore, which view verbs as markers of specific scenarios, participants, and their roles. This approach allows for going beyond a simple description of lexical meaning and delving into how speakers conceptualize and categorize actions related to removal. Method or methodology of the research: The study employs a cognitive-semantic approach, relying on the principles of frame semantics and comparative analysis. The methodology includes the modeling of removal frames and subsequent comparison of French and Russian verbs. The scientific novelty of this research lies in the development and application of a cognitive-semantic model of removal frames for the analysis of interlingual variability. Unlike traditional approaches that focus on the lexical or syntactic level, this work delves into the mental structures underlying removal verbs. Frame modeling allows the uncovering of deep mechanisms of categorization within this class of verbs, demonstrating how universal cognitive scenarios (e.g., moving an object from point A to point B find their linguistic reflection and specific modifications in different languages. The comparative analysis of French and Russian verbs allows not only the identification of cross-linguistic tendencies in the conceptualization of removal but also the uncovering of unique strategies inherent to each language system. The results obtained expand the understanding of linguistic categorization and conceptualization, offering new tools for studying the semantics of verbs in a cross-linguistic context.

The understanding of history began to shift decisively in the eighteenth century and reached full institutional consolidation as an academic discipline in the nineteenth. Against this back- drop, this article explores how four semantic classes of verbs –communication, perception, desire, and aspectual verbs– are distributed and used in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century historiographical texts drawn from the History English Texts subcorpus of the Coruña Cor- pus of English Scientific Writing. The study pursues two main aims. First, it examines the frequency of these verb classes within historical discourse of the period. Second, it analyses their use from a gender perspective, asking whether male and female authors display com- parable or divergent patterns. The findings point to clear asymmetries: male authors employ these verbs more frequently and with greater semantic range, while the patterns observed in women’s writing shed light on their discursive positioning within historiography across the two centuries.

This paper describes the design, evaluation, and application of OjibweMorph, a finite-state transducer (FST) for generating and analyzing words in the Central Algonquian language Ojibwe. We created a language-general modular system for creating FSTs from human- and machine-readable spreadsheets, where sets of inflectional and derivational morphology can be defined, combined with a lexical database, and automatically compiled into an FST. We show how this system is applied to generate and analyze the complex nominal and verbal morphology in Ojibwe, with an eye towards how our framework and toolkit can be used to create FSTs for other morphologically complex languages. We evaluate the Ojibwe version of the system by checking the model's performance against a set of inflectional forms and example sentences from the Ojibwe People's Dictionary, and describe the application of the FST to create a linguistically analyzed corpus, an automatic verb conjugation tool for education, a spell-checker, and intelligent dictionary search.

In the linguistically varied environment of foreign cruise ships, strategic English use as a lingua franca determines how well multinational crews communicate. This study examines challenges, interference, and coping strategies in English communication in a multilingual context of Balinese cruise ship crew members who have spent more than ten years working for an international cruise company. The data of the study were collected using in-depth semi-structured interviews with nine deliberately selected participants. The collected data were analyzed using thematic analysis to examine their communication challenges, inferences, and copings strategies they develop in response to English communication-related issues. Results reveal the challenges that the Balinese cruise ship crew members faced were the variety of the English pronunciation and accent of the speakers from Japan, India, Russia, and China. In terms of interferences, The Balinese crew members’ English exhibited structural errors influenced by interference from Balinese and Indonesian. These errors, shaped by differences in their native languages, included issues with article usage, verb conjugation, and sentence construction. The This study also confirmed that Balinese cruise ship crew members demonstrated a range of adaptive strategies and coping methods to manage these challenges. In situations where verbal understanding was lacking, they primarily relied on context, nonverbal cues, and interpreting the situation to grasp meaning. To enhance clarity, particularly during guest interactions, they also employed techniques such as rephrasing, repeating information, and simplifying their language. These results highlight the resiliency and adaptability of Balinese cruise ship crew members and provide an understanding of English as a working language in international cruise ship professional environments.

The object of the paper is Russian multiplicative verbs, that is verbs denoting repeating homogenous acts, cf. šagat’ («to step»), maxat’ («to wave»), ikat’ («to hiccup»), etc. My goal is to specify the definition of this class of verbs and to interpretate from the semantic point of view a well known systemic ambiguity of some sentences with such a verb. The study is carried out within the frame of Moscow semantic school. The problem is that there are many verbs which denote processes consisting of repeating homogenous acts, and still such verbs are never classified as multiplicative; cf. idti («to walk»); bežat’ («to run»); kosit’ travu («to mow the grass»), etc. The point is that in the focus of the meaning of a multiplicative verb are repeating homogenous acts while in the focus of idti ‘to walk’, bežat’ ‘to run’, kosit’ travu ‘to mow the grass’, etc. is purpose of action. I also demonstrate that meaning of many multiplicative verbs contains semantic component ‘once or more than once’, and because of that in some contexts they denote not series of homogenous acts but a single act. I call such multiplicative verbs non-strict as opposed to strict multiplicatives which always denote repeating homogenous acts (cf. drožat’ «to tremble for some time»). From this point of view I discuss aspectual pairs like šagat’ – šagnut’, maxat’ – maxnut’. The semantic interpretation of the verbs under discussion allows us to reveal the direction of derivation in the pair multiplicative – semelfactive.

This study aims to identify the difficulties and challenges related to lexical and morphological choices faced by Malaysian students when expressing opinions in Spanish as a foreign language. To achieve the study's objectives, data was collected through selected quizzes, oral exercises, and interviews with chosen students. A total of 60 students participated in this study, and their 60 responses were analyzed. The data, analyzed through a descriptive qualitative approach, reveals a series of difficulties encountered by students in terms of lexical and morphological selection, which hinder Malaysian students from producing grammatically correct sentences when expressing opinions in Spanish, supported by quantitative data. Other challenges faced by the students include sentence construction involving verbal conjugation, grammatical gender, and lexical mastery. The findings of this study can serve as a guide for planning to enhance the teaching of Spanish as a foreign language, making it easier to understand and shaping more suitable and effective activities to help students improve their language proficiency and ultimately produce grammatically correct sentences.