Abstract From the mid-1800s onward, Chicago's Irish immigrants played an important role in supporting both physical force and constitutional nationalist organizations in their ancestral homeland. This tradition of assistance declined significantly after the partition of Ireland in 1921. Most of Chicago's Irish community saw the Irish Free State's dominion status as a significant step toward eventual freedom. In addition, the 1924 Immigration Act and onset of the Great Depression cut the city's nationalist groups off from the steady stream of new arrivals from Ireland that had been a source of regeneration for nearly a century. Chicago's post–1945 suburbanization further compounded these trends, breaking the sense of ethnic solidarity that had traditionally driven concern for events in Ireland. This article argues, however, that in the late 1960s, despite all the challenges, Chicago's remaining Irish nationalists were rejuvenated by the outbreak of violence in Northern Ireland. Enraged by what they saw as British oppression, particularly the use of internment without trial and the murder of civil rights demonstrators on Bloody Sunday, they channeled their activism through the Irish Northern Aid Committee (Noraid). In its first two years, Chicago Noraid sent significant amounts of cash to the republican movement in Ireland, helped generate publicity for their cause, and attracted support from a handful of the city's political leaders. Others set up weapons pipelines that provided the Provisional IRA with the military hardware it needed to wage an “armed struggle” that helped bring down the Unionist government in Belfast.

Bloody Tuesday: The Untold Story of the Struggle for Civil Rights in Tuscaloosa

ABSTRACT The San Francisco Bay Area’s international importance during and after World War II presented an opportunity for Black women to dismantle a ‘steel ceiling’ in industrial work. The critical role of wartime Bay Area shipbuilding meant more than jobs to African Americans; the shipyards placed Black liberation struggles on a global stage: Black women demanded the right to protect their own bodies and to link their struggle to the broader demands of the civil rights and an emerging human rights agenda. Envisioning their resistance to workplace violence as connected to the war against fascism: to win the war, to preserve democracy, and to protect human rights, they transformed the Double V campaign into a political ethos and organizing tool. Most African American shipyard workers were men; however, Black women shipyard disproportionately pursued grievances through the Fair Employment Practice Committee (FEPC), demanding the full extent of the agency’s investigatory authority. Raising than the alarm of dangerous working conditions, African American women created strategies to combat the ‘invisible’ impact of a toxic workplace. Bullying, harassment, and reprisal emerged as managerial tools of intimidation to ensure that Black women would quit defense work and abandon labor organizing in the shipyards.

Sociostructural Determinants of Health for People Living With HIV During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Policy Brief for Future Global Health Crises.

This research paper investigates the legal framework governing the use of lethal weapons by state authorities, focusing specifically on the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the laws within Pakistan. The study assesses international human rights standards regarding the use of lethal force, examines Pakistan's obligations under the ICCPR, and reviews the domestic legal framework that governs law enforcement's application of lethal weapons. The paper also identifies discrepancies between international standards and local practices in Pakistan, emphasizing the necessity for comprehensive legislative reform to ensure alignment with human rights obligations.

Abstract Democracy faces growing threats from authoritarian ideologies, especially in terrorism-affected regions. We test whether citizen-targeted democracy-promotion intervention can bolster democratic support and resist authoritarian appeals. A randomized online experiment in Burkina Faso exposed participants to educational videos focusing on: (1) introduction of civic rights democracies offer, (2) general discussion of democracy’s advantages in combating terrorism, (3) Burkina Faso–specific discussion of democracy’s advantages in combating terrorism, (4) space exploration (placebo). Democracy-promotion videos increased democratic support. The general terrorism-advantage message produced the largest gains, whereas the country-specific message had little effect. Effects are not contingent on respondents’ proximity to attacks or direct experience. These findings highlight how democratic resilience can be strengthened in conflict-affected societies and inform future efforts to promote democracy. .

This paper examines the legal ramifications of derogating from human rights during states of emergency in accordance with international law, with particular reference to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. It is predicated on the hypothesis that the political system's nature may influence the extent of human rights restrictions. The discussion is structured around the following research inquiries: How are human rights defined under international law, and in what ways do democratic standards affect the process of derogation from human rights? The analysis evaluates the legal modifications enacted in Poland in response to the declaration of the COVID-19 pandemic. The study employs the formal-dogmatic methodology.

This work aims to develop an approach, from the point of view of sociological research, regarding the relationship between democracy and human rights. In this sense, it initially outlines some key elements of democracy and discusses some of its problematic aspects. It states, for example, that a representative system is not necessarily democratic. Then, the paper deals with the concept of human rights. It emphasizes that the protection of human rights and the rule of law, not only in developed but also in developing countries, is best achieved through a commitment to democratic principles. The experience of human rights and freedoms is necessary for democracy to function properly at all. In conclusion, it is stated that the guarantee of civil and political rights for the individual citizen plays a fundamental role in democracy. For instance, these rights are essential to secure the twin democratic principles of popular control and political equality in the system of collective decision-making.

The trial of civilians by military courts in Pakistan constitutes one of the most significant constitutional and human rights controversies in the country’s contemporary legal landscape. Initially introduced as a temporary and exceptional response to terrorism following the 2014 Army Public School attack, military courts were justified on grounds of expediency and national security. However, the gradual expansion and normalization of their jurisdiction over civilians have raised serious concerns regarding their compatibility with constitutional guarantees of fair trial and Pakistan’s international human rights obligations. This paper undertakes a qualitative doctrinal and comparative legal analysis to examine whether military court proceedings align with Article 10A of the Constitution of Pakistan and the fair trial standards enshrined in Article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Focusing on the conflicting Supreme Court decisions of October 2023 and May 2025, the study highlights systemic deficiencies in military court proceedings, including the absence of judicial independence, lack of transparency, restricted access to legal representation, and ineffective appellate review. The paper argues that the continued trial of civilians by military courts is constitutionally unsustainable and normatively inconsistent with international human rights law. It concludes by proposing evidence-based legislative and institutional reforms aimed at reconciling national security concerns with constitutional supremacy and fair trial guarantees.

It is indicated that international law pays special attention to the issue of protecting the inviolability of human rights, in particular regarding compensation for damages for their violation. From the standpoint of the international responsibility of states and the protection of the rights of individuals, ensuring the implementation of legitimate claims remains not just an objective necessity, but also a moral and political obligation of each state of the world community. In accordance with this principle, the international community recognizes the importance of an adequate response to violations, since the main value of the world order is human life, dignity and freedom of each individual. The article examines the legal status and protection of the rights of Ukrainian military personnel in accordance with international law. It is determined that both general norms of international human rights law and special norms of international humanitarian law apply to members of the armed forces. The key international legal acts that form the system of guarantees for military personnel are analyzed: the UN Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the 1949 Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the European Convention on Human Rights, and the Rome Statute of the ICC. Particular attention is paid to the protection of life and dignity, the prohibition of torture, unlawful deprivation of liberty, collective punishment, and inhuman treatment during armed conflicts and martial law. The content of the principles of humanity and proportionality is disclosed, emphasizing that states are obliged to avoid excessive use of force and to ensure the protection of civilians and prisoners of war. The activities of international institutions – the ICRC, the ICC, and the ECtHR – in monitoring the observance of the rights of military personnel are examined, as well as their influence on the development of Ukrainian practice. Special attention is given to the significance of ECtHR case law concerning violations of human rights during armed conflicts and its impact on national legislation and judicial practice. The article also examines the issues of implementing international legal standards into Ukraine’s legal system, including the provision of social guarantees, medical protection, the right to a fair trial, and the safeguarding of the honor and dignity of military personnel. It is emphasized that, in the context of Russian aggression, the observance of the rights of military personnel has become especially relevant, and the effective implementation of international norms is an important component of national security and the strengthening of Ukraine’s authority as a state that adheres to international humanitarian law.

It is indicated that the international system of human rights protection consists of several interrelated elements: norms-principles that form the basis of this field; specific substantive legal norms; procedural norms, the importance of which is constantly growing, because they regulate the procedure for ensuring the protection of individual rights; as well as institutional mechanisms for the international protection of human rights. The article examines the theoretical foundations of the formation and functioning of international human rights standards, as well as their specialized subsystem in the sphere of justice. The main doctrinal approaches to defining the concept of international human rights standards are analyzed, in particular the concepts of P. Rabinovich, M. Khavronyuk, P. Pustorino, V. Reisman, S. Verlanov and B. Kofman. It has been established that international standards are normative guidelines enshrined in international legal documents of the universal and regional levels, which establish the minimum permissible level of human rights protection and impose corresponding obligations on states. The essential features of international standards have been determined: normative enshrined in acts of a mandatory or recommendatory nature; model character as a model for national legislation; the presence of institutional mechanisms of control and protection; preservation of freedom of discretion by states in practical application. The system of international standards in the field of justice has been studied, which includes basic standards (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms), special standards (Basic Principles of the Independence of the UN Judiciary, European Charter on the Status of Judges), the practice of the European Court of Human Rights and recommendatory acts of the Council of Europe. It is substantiated that the key elements of justice standards are the independence and impartiality of judges, the right to a fair trial within a reasonable time, and ensuring real access to court. The conclusion is made about the importance of implementing international standards for the formation of an effective judicial system and strengthening the rule of law in Ukraine.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the permissible limits of cultural prohibitions from the standpoint of international human rights law. The example of modern Afghanistan under the Taliban rule shows the collision between traditional norms and universal rights, in particular the right to life (Article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)) and the obligation of states to eradicate discriminatory practices (Article 5 of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW Convention)). It is substantiated that the prohibitions introduced by the de facto Taliban authorities (exclusion from education and work, restrictions on movement, imposed dress code, requirement of “mahram”, reduction of female doctors) have a cumulative effect that undermines the positive obligations of the state to protect life: poverty of households with a nursing woman is increasing, access to obstetric care is deteriorating, cases of lethal violence motivated by “honor” or “morality” are recorded. It is shown that reference to cultural norms cannot justify arbitrary deprivation of life or tolerance of harmful practices; on the contrary, Article 5 of CEDAW requires active transformation of such norms, and Article 6 of the ICCPR requires effective preventive and protective measures. The novelty lies in the conceptualization of the “life over custom” approach: the priority of the protection of life and equality over custom in the proportionality test, which includes a verification of the legitimate aim, suitability, necessity and proportionality of the restriction, taking into account gender consequences. The practical significance is the formulation of guidelines for national authorities and international missions: criminalization of “honor killings”, restoration of women’s access to education, work and medicine, abolition of “guardianship” norms, ensuring investigations and reparations, as well as the integration of CEDAW and ICCPR standards into humanitarian programs. The key conclusion is that where custom creates a real threat to life or entrenches the subordination of women, its legal legitimacy is lost.

The importance of researching the field of human rights protection is determined by the constitutional value of freedom of religion (Article 35 of the Constitution of Ukraine), which is an integral element of a democratic, law-based state and the foundation for peaceful coexistence in conditions of religious diversity. With the growing number of cases of illegal obstruction of religious activity and the use of violence, especially against clergy, the protection of freedom of religion is becoming increasingly relevant. Such acts pose a danger to society, as they not only violate the personal inviolability of citizens, but also undermine social harmony. The criminal law measures enshrined in Articles 178, 179, 180, and 181 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine guarantee the implementation of balance in the context of the rule of law, preventing intolerance and violence arising from religious hostility. The article focuses on international legal standards reflected in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), which guarantees freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, and establishes an absolute requirement to prevent violence (physical or psychological) in the exercise of religious activities; the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights establish the right to internal freedom of thought and religion, which includes the right to freely choose, adopt, or change religion or belief, and external freedom to practice it without any coercion that violates this choice. International norms enshrine the state’s obligation to actively protect freedom of religion and combat hate crimes, which is part of the rule of law. To ensure Ukraine’s European integration, provisions on the limits of permissible restrictions on freedom of religion have been clarified in accordance with the practice of the European Court of Human Rights (Leyla Şahin v. Turkey). Given the growing role of social networks in spreading religious intolerance, the need to unify law enforcement practices in accordance with the requirements of the OSCE ODIHR (Decision No. 3/13) is emphasized. This is a preventive basis for strengthening Ukraine’s social stability in the face of global and local challenges, confirming its harmonization with European values.

On Sept. 29, 2025, the First Circuit Court of Appeals temporarily paused an injunction that halted the U.S. Department of Education's planned staff reductions in its Office for Civil Rights. The injunction, issued by U.S. District Judge Myong Joun, required reinstatement of civil rights staff whom the Education Department intended to lay off.

The U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights announced the conclusion of its much‐publicized investigation into the University of Pennsylvania for allowing Lia Thomas, a transgender woman who was born a biological male, to compete on its women's swim team.

The article conducts a comprehensive analysis of mechanisms for safeguarding social and humanitarian human rights during the Russo-Ukrainian war. It establishes that the legal regime of martial law permits restrictions on certain constitutional rights, including: freedom of movement through curfew implementation; free choice of residence through mandatory evacuations; freedom to leave Ukraine's territory for specific demographic groups; along with rights to work and education. The study reveals that effective humanitarian policy directly depends on identifying critical threats: to national identity, ethnopolitical tensions, historical memory manipulation, and instrumentalization of religious institutions for social destabilization. Consequently, the formation of a unified civic identity constitutes a fundamental objective of state humanitarian policy. The threat to Ukrainian national identity has emerged from societal ambivalence, characterized by the competition between pan-Russian imperial and European Ukrainian identities within Ukraine, alongside the resonance of "Russian world" ideology among certain population segments. Drawing on the Council of Europe's Needs Assessment Report "Social Rights in Ukraine during War," this study highlights the critical importance of safeguarding civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights during periods of armed conflict. The mass displacement of populations coupled with the systematic destruction of social infrastructure during warfare severely compromises people's ability to access education, employment opportunities, healthcare services, and other vital resources necessary for sustaining proper living conditions and means of subsistence.

The article analyzes international legal documents containing provisions on the principle of equal rights and non-discrimination, in particular, examines international legal standards that serve as the basis for modern regulation of ensuring equal rights for workers in labor relations in Ukraine. It is noted that today the current labor legislation of Ukraine does not fully meet modern requirements, contains a number of gaps and conflicts in the field of ensuring equal rights and opportunities for workers, which necessitates a comprehensive analysis of international legal standards in the field of ensuring equality. It is established that the international legal basis of the principle of equal rights and opportunities for workers is formed on the basis of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, UN and ILO conventions and recommendations, the European Social Charter (revised), and EU declarations. The author’s comprehensive analysis of these international legal documents indicates the presence of a number of legislative provisions that regulate the principle of equal rights and opportunities for employees, the prevention of their discrimination, in particular, providing for equal opportunities, equal remuneration for equal work, safe working conditions, career development and a balance between work and personal life, which, in turn, indicates the recognition of the problem and efforts to prevent its occurrence by legal means. It is noted that international legal standards of equality and the prevention of discrimination in the labor sphere have today also found their embodiment in some legislative acts of Ukraine. That is, Ukraine, as a country – a member state for accession to the European Union, is actively working on the harmonization of national legislation with international legal acts. Since the implementation of international uniform and generally binding standards for ensuring equal rights of employees is an important step towards creating an effective and civilized instrument for the protection of both employees and members of their families.

In the context of a global risk society, emergency law has become a critical field for balancing the expansion of state power with the protection of civil rights during crises. Despite its growing importance, a systematic, quantitative comparison of the knowledge landscapes of international and Chinese emergency law scholarship has been notably absent. This study employs bibliometric and knowledge mapping analysis, utilizing CiteSpace software. A total of 274 publications were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection and 391 from the China National Knowledge Infrastructure database. These data were used to systematically map and compare the research status, collaborative networks, and core themes of the two academic communities. The findings indicate that while both international and Chinese research are crisis-driven, with publication surges corresponding to major events such as the 9/11 attacks, SARS, and the COVID-19 pandemic, they function as two academically isolated communities with no author-level collaboration. A fundamental divergence in research paradigms was identified. International scholarship follows a "limitation-oriented" paradigm, rooted in liberal constitutionalism, focusing on the tension between emergency powers and human rights, and the risks of a state of exception. In contrast, Chinese research adopts a "construction-oriented" paradigm aimed at building an efficient, state-centric crisis response system, dominated by concepts such as emergency management and the "one plan and three sub-systems" framework. This study concludes that there are two worlds of emergency law. The international paradigm primarily treats emergency law as a mechanism to constrain state authority and protect individual rights from government overreach. In contrast, the Chinese paradigm views law as an instrument to enhance state capacity and ensure effective crisis management. This fundamental divergence in normative goals and theoretical foundations identified in this study presents significant theoretical and practical challenges for global emergency governance and offers a clear direction for future comparative legal studies.

Aim . The article demonstrates different approaches of law enforcement practice and the legislator to the definition of contract terms that violate the balance of the parties’ property interests, depending on the scope of the contractual relations. It shows the lack of a uniform approach in the terminology and definition of such terms. Methodology . The study used the formal-legal method, the method of comparative legal analysis, and systematization. The use of the formal-legal method made it possible to identify contract terms that violate the property balance of the parties. The use of the method of comparative legal analysis and systematization allowed us to identify problems in the application of civil legislation in this area. Results . The law enforcement officer summarized the grounds for considering the terms of the contract, assessing the level of possible compliance with the balance of the parties’ property interests. It is worth noting that in order to recognize a condition as unfair in a contractual relationship with a consumer, it is important to consider the actions taken before the contract is concluded, namely, before the establishment of civil rights and obligations, which must be conducted in good faith. It is noted that a consumer’s weak position in a contractual relationship may not only be that of an individual consumer, but also that of a consumer who is a legal entity (an individual entrepreneur) in public contracts. Research implication . The proposals and conclusions contained in this article can serve as a basis for further research on the conditions of a contract that violate the balance of the parties’ property interests, depending on the scope of the contractual relationship.

American Public Health Association, American Medical Association, and American Nurses Association have declared racism a public health crisis because systemic oppression harms the care of individuals and the health of populations. To help increase recognition, knowledge, and action to address structural racism contributing to health inequities. American Public Health Association Press has published a book, Systems That Impact Population Health: Past and Present, that was written with support and coordination from the National Academy of Medicine Culture of Health Program funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. This article provides an overview of the book and its conceptual model and actionable solutions. Structural and systemic racism decreases access to opportunity structures for economic vitality, education, housing, justice, and health care, and directly exposes individuals to health risks including chronic stress, discrimination, and stigma. Racism segregates communities, leading to cumulative disadvantage and worse health. Actionable solutions can address structural racism to advance health equity in health care systems and social systems such as economic infrastructure, labor and employment, education, justice and civil rights law, media, immigration and foreign policy, and data and information. Improving social and health care systems helps poor, marginalized white populations, people of color, and the nation overall.