Chrysanthemum Cinerariaefolium Research Articles

Respiratory system: Highly exposed yet under-reported organ in pyrethrin and pyrethroid toxicity.

Pyrethrin and pyrethroid are a relatively new class of pesticides with potent insecticidal properties. Pyrethrins are naturally occurring pesticides obtained from the Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium flower, while pyrethroids are their synthetic derivatives. They are widely used as the insecticides of choice in agriculture, veterinary medicine, public health programs, and household activities. Pyrethrin, being a broad-spectrum insecticide kills a wide range of pests, while pyrethroids last longer in the environment owing to low susceptibility to sunlight, and greater stability and efficacy than parent molecules. Humans can be exposed through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal routes. Indoor usage of an insecticide poses a serious risk to human health, especially to women, children, and stay-at-home people. Although pyrethrin and pyrethroid are generally considered safe, sustained skin or inhalation exposure or direct contact with open wounds results in higher toxicity to mammals. There is a paucity of data on the impact of pyrethrin and pyrethroid on overall pulmonary health. The respiratory system, from the nose, nasal passages, airways, and bronchi to the pulmonary alveoli, is vulnerable to environmental contaminants such as pesticides because of its anatomical location as well as being a highly blood profused organ. Under and over-functioning of the respiratory system triggers diverse pathologies such as serious infections, allergies, asthma, metastatic malignancies, and auto-immune conditions. While the association between workplace-related pesticide exposures and respiratory diseases and symptoms is well documented, it is important to understand the adverse health impact of pyrethrin and pyrethroid on the general population for awareness and also for better regulation and implementation of the law.

Efficacy of some botanical insecticides against <em>Aphis gossypii</em> Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on chrysanthemum

An evaluation of various botanical insecticides to control Aphis gossypii and its impact on aphid population dynamics on chrysanthemum plants was investigated. In order to control A. gossypii on chrysanthemum, the effectiveness of several botanical insecticides extracted from Melia azedarach, Toona sinensis, and Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium was investigated in the current study. The research was carried out in the experimental field of the Indonesian Ornamental Crops Research Institute under plastic house conditions. Five concentrations, i.e., 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 3.5 g/L of three plant extracts, M. azedarach, T. sinensis, and C. cinerariaefolium, were sprayed on chrysanthemum cultivar White Fiji after 28 to 84 days after planting. A. gossypii had a dynamic population that changed according to the plant’s developmental stages. In vegetative growth, the alate adult and nymphal stages were dominant, and the population of nymphs increased along the plant ages. The insect colonized young leaf surfaces in the terminal apices. During the reproductive stages, the population of alate adults diminished, and the distribution of the insect extended to mature, old leaves, flower buds, and bloomed flowers. The application of several botanical insecticides revealed various responses of aphid populations. Among the tested insecticides, C. cinerariaefolium extract at 3.0 and 3.5 g/L demonstrated the highest average percentage efficacy (76 and 72%) and was the most consistent in suppressing the population. The results of this study indicate the potential efficacy of botanical insecticides against A. gossypii suggesting a different approach to efficient and environment-friendly chrysanthemum pest management.

Insecticidal efficacy of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Seed Oil Against Cowpea Beetle and Its Impact on the Physicochemical and Technological Characteristics of Cowpea during Storage

Insecticidal efficacy of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Seed Oil Against Cowpea Beetle and Its Impact on the Physicochemical and Technological Characteristics of Cowpea during Storage

Phytochemical analysis and insecticidal potential of pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) Extracts: A sustainable approach to pest management

Phytochemical analysis and insecticidal potential of pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) Extracts: A sustainable approach to pest management

Some Thoughts on Biopesticides

Although Rachel Carson warned that the use of chemical pesticides can result in adverse effects on the environment, relatively few insecticides, such as DDT were banned, except where it was used inside houses to control mosquitoes. Many highly hazardous pesticides have continued to be used by farmers, but more attention is now given to use eco-friendly safer products such as biopesticides with the number of scientific research papers being increased by 71.24% between 2011 and 2021. However, the adoption of these biopesticides has been relatively modest as their impact on pests is often slow and the persistence of spray deposits exposed to sunlight can be significantly reduced. Certain biopesticides are not new as pyrethrum was known in Iran as far back as 400BC. With more attention to it early in the 19th Century in Europe where it initially referred to as “Dalmatian powder”, obtained from the flower heads of a plant now called Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, grown in the Balkans. Later it was shown that pyrethrum consisted of two active components Pyrethrin I and Pyrethrin II which could be synergised by mixing with piperonyl butoxide, but it was confined to indoor use as it was not persistent when exposed to sunlight. Much later in studies at Rothamsted a photostable pyrethroid was developed which was persistent when sprayed on crops. Today, biopesticides have been derived not only from extracts from plants, but also by using pathogenic microorganisms to provide bioinsecticides, such as Bacillus thuringiensis, biofungicides (e.g. Trichoderma) and bioherbicides (e.g. Phytopthora) indicated biopesticides have benefits.

A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON NEUROTOXICITY OF PYRETHROIDS

Pyrethroids are synthetic derivations of natural pyrethrins from the factory Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. They comprise esters of chrysanthemum acid (ethyl, 2-dimethyl-3-(1-isobutenyl) cyclopropane-1-carboxylate) and halogenated derivations of their acids and alcohols. Pyrethroids are generally used in menage diseases and companion beast ectoparasite control products, and their limited use in the home terrain raises the trouble of exposure and adverse goods in the general population for humans and advanced creatures. Exploration with a wide range of pyrethroids has indicated that the choreothetosis-expectoration (CS) pattern frequently occurs as substances like deltamethrin, cypermethrin, and fenvalerate, which have the mode T- cyano-3-phenoxybenzylalcohol. General, extensively used bracket of Pyrethroid composites are determined grounded upon the symptomology of nonentity goods noted in neurophysiological tests. Numerous lines of substantiation indicate that the voltage sensitive sodium channel for both insects is the one main molecular destination for all pyrethroids and DDT analogues. In biophysical and biochemical examinations, the changes in sodium channel functioning are nearly connected to the impact of these substances on complete neurons. The pyrethroid sodium channel discovery point demonstrates the strict stereo particularity anticipated by in vivo nonentity neurotoxicity estimates. Composites of type I and type II have qualitative goods on currents of the sodium channel tail, divergent impact on complete neurons and differing goods on muscle excitability of the invertebrate shell. Knowledge of the molecular events bolstering pyrethroid neurotoxicity is directly applicable to determining whether this large and important class of diseases constitutes a single “common medium” group or multiple groups for the purposes of cumulative trouble assessment.

Protective effects of selenium against cypermethrin induced hepatorenal damage in Sprague Dawley rats

Introduction: Alpha-Cypermethrin is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide. Pyrethroids are derived from pyrethrins, which are toxic components found in the Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium flowers. They have been employed in agriculture, home and veterinary formulations to control the insect vectors of disease, agricultural insects and topically applied to eradicate veterinary pests. The extensive use of pyrethroids in agriculture results in severe pyrethroid poisonings in developing countries. Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the serum biochemical changes induced by oral exposure of cypermethrin and the protective effects of selenium in female Sprague-Dawley rats. Methodology: The female rats (n=20) were equally divided into four groups. Group 1, 2, 3 and 4 received 1 ml corn oil, 55 mg/kg/b.w of cypermethrin, 1 ppm of sodium selenite, both cypermethrin and sodium selenite respectively for 21 days. The serum was utilized for estimation of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine transaminase (ALT), urea, creatinine and bilirubin by using Selectra E (Germany). Levels of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) in serum were measured using Easylyte (Na+/K+) analyzer (Japan). Results: Results obtained showed that activities of ALP and ALT were significantly (P<0.05) elevated in cypermethrin treated rats. Total bilirubin, urea and creatinine were insignificantly elevated due to cypermethrin administration. Also, selenium reduced the harmful effects of cypermethrin in the combined treatment group in some parameters. Conclusion: Oral exposure of cypermethrin induces injuries in liver and kidney of rats as well as alterations in the levels of serum electrolytes which were modulated by selenium co-administration.

Insecticidal Activity, Toxicity, Resistance and Metabolism of Pyrethroids: a Review

Pyrethroids are synthetic or man-made versions of natural pyrethrins discovered in the flowers of a plant species of the Compositae family called "Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium". The plant was transported into Europe and America after it was discovered in the Near East. Commercial insecticides such as pyrethrin and synthetic pyrethroid are available. These are used to control agricultural pests as well as non-agricultural insects. They are also commercially used in personal care items such as shampoo and as a scent in insect repellent to boost efficacy and persistence in the environment, these insecticides are frequently combined with additional chemicals in diverse formulations, known as synergists. Nerve toxins, known as pyrethroids, although their chemical mechanism of action is unknown. Pyrethroids are neurotoxins, which interfere with the messages sent along nerves by maintaining sodium and chloride channels in an open position. This review presents perspectives, commercial uses and other useful characteristics features of pyrethroids based on human benefits and environmental friendly.

Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Dichloromethane Extract of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and Its Bioactivity

Common methods of synthesizing metallic nanoparticles are chemical and physical. However, they are expensive and use toxic chemicals. Green synthesis is less costly and safer hence a potential alternative. Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) were synthesized using dichloromethane extract of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and colour change from pale green to dark brown was observed. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images were faceted and others formed clusters. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) images were spherical with an average size of 22.8± 17.5 nm. EDX analysis showed the nanoparticles had percentage abundance of 67.26%. Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis showed absorption bands at 3489.59 cm-1, 3217.80 cm-1, 2384.74 cm-1 , 1633.05 cm-1, 1405.08 cm-1, 1109.32 cm-1 and 505.93 cm-1. The UV-Vis analysis showed Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) peak at 434 nm. The nanoparticles were more active on P. aeruginosa with an MIC of 15 µg/ml while the cytotoxicity assay showed Ag NPs had an MIC of 33.33 µg/ml hence were noncytotoxic against Vero cells.

English

This study evaluated antibacterial activity of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (pyrethrum) flower dichloromethane crude extract, fractions and isolated compounds; pyrethrin II, jasmolin I and cinerolone against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Shigella sonnei. The isolated compounds were obtained by carrying out column chromatography on dichloromethane extract and purifying the fractions using preparative High Perfomance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated using 1D and 2D NMR. The bioactivity of crude extract, fractions and isolated compounds were determined using disc diffusion assay at a concentration of 100 mg/mL. The MIC and MBC were determined using microdilution method. The bioassay results showed that individually isolated compounds were not active on all the micro-organisms except Jasmolin I which showed slight activity on P. aeruginosa with 7.7±0.6 mm. There was significant difference in the activity of the isolated compounds as a mixture and the activity of individual compounds on MRSA, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, with P= 0.01, P= 0.0002, P= 0.0007 respectively (α =0.05, Tukey’s test). Isolated compounds and isolated compounds as a mixture in a ratio of (1:1:1) were not active on S. sonnie. Those fractions and isolated compounds which caused inhibition zones of above 10 mm were subjected to MIC and MBC. The lowest MIC and MBC observed was for fraction 3 against MRSA which were 6.5 and 12.5 mg/mL respectively. The compound mixture had MIC and MBC of 25 and 50 mg/ml respectively against P. aeruginosa. Key words: MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration), MBC (minimum bacteriostatic concentration), bioassay, Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, Jasmolin, Pyrethrin II, Cinerolone.

Phago-repellent biopotency of Cichorium intybus, Inula racemosa, Tagetes minuta and Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium as herbal alternatives to synthetic insecticides against Earias vittella Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on Okra in Kanpur region

To evaluate the effectiveness of selected asteraceous botanical extractives in management of spotted bollworm, Earias vittella Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) an experiment was conducted in the plant product laboratory, Department of Zoology, D.B.S. College, Kanpur Nagar during 2021.Phago-repellent effectiveness of ten indigenous naturally occurring asteraceous plant extracts viz., aerial parts of Cichorium intybus (L.), Chromolaena odorata Linn., Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (trev.) Vis., Inula racemosa Hook. F., Mantisalca duriaeri Birq. Et Cavill., Reichardia tingitana (L.) Roth, Rhaponticum acaule (L.) DC, Scorzonera undulate Vahl, Spilanthes paniculata Well ex DC and Tagetes minuta Linn. were prepared under the laboratory conditions. For testing the phago-repellent effect, the okra leaves were used as food against larvae of Earias vittella. In each set of extract and one control was introduced, where the leaves pieces were dipped in Benzene + emulsified water only. The okra leaf pieces fastened under clip and left under electric fan for about thirty minutes, so as to complete dry up the extract. The treated foods were kept in jar (23cm x 10cm) on moist filter paper. Then third instars, 24 hours starved larvae of E. vittella were released in each jar. After four hours of the release of larvae the data was collected on the number of larvae reached and repelled at each treated food. Three replication of treatment were made. The data depicted from the results in the present experiment of repellent test against larvae of Earias vittella. All the plant extracts showed a good repellent property, when compared with the control. The repellent property was observed based on their EC50 values as: C. intybus (0.0823) > I. racemosa (0.1043) > T. minuta (0.1620) > C. cinerariaefolium (0.1677) > M. duriaeri (0.1788) > S. undulate (0.3127) > A. paniculata, (0.3805) > R. acaule (0.4405) > R. tingitana (0.6368) > C. odorata (0.8870), respectively. The relative EC50 values of the above extracts are in descending order, 10.7700 > 8.5043 > 5.4753 > 5.0227 > 4.9608 > 2.8365 > 2.3311 > 1.3929 > 1.0000 times as repellents, where as C. odorata is taken as a unit.

Spatial and developmental regulation of putative genes associated with the biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes and pyrethrin I in Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium

Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) is a plant from the Asteraceae family discovered as a plant-based insecticidal source which is producing beneficial secondary metabolites such as sesquiterpenes and pyrethrins, hence raised attention due to the insecticidal properties of its secondary metabolites. To improve our knowledge about the biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes and pyrethrin I, we directed a survey to analyze the gene expression in different developmental stages of leaves and also in chloroform dipped leaves (to remove glandular trichomes). Along with this, histochemical experiments were carried out on leaves to detect the accumulation site of lipids, monoterpene phenols, and sesquiterpenes. Gene expression results showed that chrysanthemyl diphosphate synthase (CDS), farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FDS), and 13-Lipoxygenase (13-LOX) putative genes were highly expressed in intact leaves (leaves with glandular trichomes). In contrast, their expression significantly decreased in chloroform dipped leaves (without glandular trichomes). Also, the higher expression of genes that are related to the biosynthetic pathways of sesquiterpenes and pyrethrin I was observed in young leaves compared with the leaflets and fully-expanded leaves. The obtained results demonstrate that glandular trichomes’ relative density changes markedly during the developmental stages of leaves and, consequently, influences the transcript levels of trichome-specific genes.

Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Dichloromethane-Methanol Flower Extract of <i>Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium</i> and Its Antibacterial Activity

Nanotechnology is an emerging field that has opened new horizons in nanomedicine. The use of silver nanoparticles is attracting much interest because of their antibacterial activity. This study involved synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium flowers dichloromethane-methanol crude extract. The synthesized silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) were characterized using UV-Vis spectroscopy, SEM, EDX, TEM and FTIR. The antibacterial potential of the nanoparticles was ascertained against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Shigella sonnei. This was followed by phytochemical analyses of the crude extracts. The Ag NPs were generally spherical as observed in the SEM and TEM micrographs with an average size of 26.98 nm. The UV- absorption spectrum revealed prominent peak at 430 nm while EDX analysis showed the percentage abundance of silver nanoparticle at (81.33%). The FTIR spectroscopy confirmed absorption bands of various functional groups on the surface of Ag NPs. The absorption bands were at 3472.88 cm-1, 3190.67 cm-1, 1646.61 cm-1, 1405.08 cm-1, 1109.32 cm-1 and 518.64 cm-1. Antibacterial potential of the synthesized Ag NPs showed that they were more active on S. aureus with an MIC of 31.25 µg/ml. The phytochemicals observed in the crude extracts that could have been responsible for reducing silver ions into silver nanoparticles were flavonoids, phenols, tannins and glycosides.

THE EFFECTS OF PYRETHRUM EXTRACT ON Galleria mellonella HEMOLYMPH PHENOLOXIDASE ENZYME

Pyrethrum is a natural neurotoxic insecticide which is obtained from the flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium plant. Pyrethrum extract causes DNA damage, genotoxic effect, induction of autophagy and apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, inhibition of biochemical processes. The greater wax moth Galleria mellonella L. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is gaining increasing attention in immunity studies as an invertebrate model organism. Melanization, which is the most important response of invertebrate humoral immunity, occurs when inactive prophenoloxidase turns into phenoloxidase enzyme. Changes in phenoloxidase enzyme activity are an important marker for humoral immunity. In our study, the phenoloxidase enzyme activity of hemolymph collected from G. mellonella larvae treated with different doses of pyrethrum extract was determined by reading against a certain absorbance in an ELISA microplate reader. The findings obtained from this study showed that 0.6 mg/ml pyrethrum extract increased phenoloxidase enzyme activity. Doses above and below this dose did not cause a significant change in phenoloxidase activity compared to control groups. In the evaluation made in terms of the change of enzyme activity over time, while the enzyme activity increased rapidly in the first 15 minutes, the enzyme activity rate decreased after the 20th minute. The effect of pyrethrum extract on phenoloxidase enzyme activity in G. mellonella larval hemolymph at a certain dose is consistent with the literature. The reason for this effect of the extract is closely related to its genotoxic and cytotoxic effects.

Partial sequence isolation of DXS and AOS genes and gene expression analysis of terpenoids and pyrethrin biosynthetic pathway of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium under abiotic elicitation

One of the most important issues in crop production is the use of agrochemicals. The use of synthetic or manufactured chemicals on crops has made a frightening image of health problems. A concern about chemical residues on food products has led to seek for new alternative compounds with fewer side effects on humans and environment. Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) belongs to the Asteraceae family is one of the most important resources of natural insecticides which produce pyrethrin I. Pyrethrin I has an acidic moiety and an alcohol moiety, the acidic moiety of these molecules is a monoterpene with a cyclopropane ring and biosynthesized via 2-C-methylerythrol 4-phosphate pathway (MEP) and alcohol moiety is biosynthesized via the lipoxygenase pathway through membrane lipids. At the end, the acidic moiety and alcohol moiety from separate pathways conjugate together by TcGLIP enzyme, a kind of GLIP lipase family. Based on the importance of pyrethrin I as a natural insecticide in pyrethrum partial sequences of 1-deoxy d-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase (DXS) gene from the MEP pathway and Allene oxide synthase (AOS) gene from the lipoxygenase pathway were isolated by specific primers to study their expression patterns in different conditions. Along with this, gene expression patterns of DXS, chrysanthemyl diphosphate synthase, farnesyl diphosphate synthase, GLIP lipase (TcGLIP), AOS and 13-lipoxygenase were investigated under abiotic elicitors including trans-cinnamic acid, methyl jasmonate, salicylic acid and ultra-violet ray by RT-PCR to determine the effect of aforementioned elicitors on transcript levels. Results showed that the expression of genes in the biosynthetic pathway of pyrethrin I under methyl-jasmonate, salicylic acid and ultra-violet ray treatments were up-regulated in compared with control plants.

Antifeeding Potentials of Cichorium intybus, Chromolaena odorata, Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and Inula racemosa Hook against 3rd instars larvae of spotted bollworm, Earias vittella (Fabr.)

Antifeeding Potentials of Cichorium intybus, Chromolaena odorata, Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and Inula racemosa Hook against 3rd instars larvae of spotted bollworm, Earias vittella (Fabr.)

PREPARATION DIFFERENTIAL CULTURE MEDIUM FOR CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS FROM AQUEOUS EXTRACT OF LEAVES AND FLOWERS OF CHRYSANTHEMUM CINERARIAEFOLIUM

Objective: A new medium was prepared to isolate and diagnose the yeast Cryptococcus neoformans from flower and leaves aqueous extract of chrysanthemum.
 Methods: Prepared differential culture medium for C. neoformans from aqueous extract of leaves and flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and chemical, spectral tests of the extracts were tested, in addition of gas chromatography (GC)–mass was used to diagnose phenolic compounds in both leaves and flowers.
 Results: Showed that the yeast was grow with typical colonies on the new medium compared with other media which using in diagnosed of this yeast such as Staib agar and Sabourauds dextrose agar and unlike the yeast Candida albicans (as a negative control), which appeared in cream to white on this medium. Furthermore, the colonies are dark brown in color on flower chrysanthemum medium and light brown color on leaves chrysanthemum medium. In addition, the results of the chemical and spectral tests of the extracts confirmed that the plant contains many active compounds such as alkaloids, turbines, tannins, and phenols. The analysis of the extracts of phenolic compounds using GC–mass led to the diagnosis of five compounds in the leaf extract and nine compounds in the flower extract of this plant.
 Conclusions: The media was prepared is differential medium that use to diagnosis of Cryptococcus such as Staib agar. Moreover, low economic cost, which consists of leaves and flowers of a plant available, abundance and the method of preparation is very simple.

Current Research on the Safety of Pyrethroids Used as Insecticides.

Pyrethroids are synthetic derivatives of natural pyrethrins extracted from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. They are 2250 times more toxic to insects than to vertebrates due to insects’ smaller size, lower body temperature and more sensitive sodium channels. In particular, three pyrethroid compounds, namely deltamethrin, permethrin, and alpha-cypermethrin, are commonly used as insecticides and are recommended for in-home insect control because they are considered to be relatively non-toxic to humans in all stages of life. However, recent data show that they are not completely harmless to human health as they may enter the body through skin contact, by inhalation and food or water, and absorption level depending on the type of food. Permethrin seems to have an adverse effect on fertility, the immune system, cardiovascular and hepatic metabolism as well as enzymatic activity. Deltamethrin induces inflammation, nephro- and hepatotoxicity and influences the activity of antioxidant enzymes in tissues. Alpha-cypermethrin may impair immunity and act to increase glucose and lipid levels in blood. The aim of the review is to provide comprehensive information on potential hazards associated to human exposure to deltamethrin, permethrin and alpha-cypermethrin. The results of presented studies prove that the insecticides must be used with great caution.

Augmentation of pyrethrins content in callus of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and establishing its insecticidal activity by molecular docking of NavMS Sodium Channel Pore receptor.

Pyrethrins are effective food-grade bio-pesticides obtained from the flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and this crop cannot be cultivated widely in India due to its specific agro-climatic requirement. Hence pyrethrins are mostly imported from Kenya. Therefore, the present study aims to develop a process for augmentation of pyrethrin contents in C. cinerariaefolium callus and establish the correlation between early knockdown effects through docking on grain storage insect. In vitro seedlings were used as explants to induce callus on MS medium with different concentrations of auxins and cytokinins. Pyrethrin extracted from the callus was estimated by RP-HPLC. In callus, total pyrethrin was found to be 17.5µg/g, which is higher than that found in natural flowers of certain Pyrethrum cultivars. The concentrations of cinerin II, pyrethrin II and jasmoline II were quite high in callus grown on solid medium. Bio-efficacy of pyrethrum extracts of flower and callus on insect Tribolium sp., showed higher repellency and early knock-down effect when compared with pure compound pestanal. Further, the rapid knockdown effect of all pyrethrins components was established by molecular docking studies targeting NavMS Sodium Channel Pore receptor docking followed bymultiple ligands simultaneous docking, performed to investigate the concurrent binding of different combinations of pyrethrin. Among the six pyrethrin components, the pyrethrin I and II were found to be a more efficient, binding more firmly to the target, exhibiting higher possibilities of insecticidal effect by an early knockdown mechanism.

Syntheses of epoxides, and structural analysis of (E)[sbnd]N-hexyl-3-(trans-3-methyloxiran-2-yl)prop-2-enamide by spectroscopic techniques and DFT calculations

Pyrethroids are three membered ring compounds similar to the natural pyrethrins produced by the flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and C. coccineum. Pyrethroids are insecticides and may also have insect repellent properties and are generally harmless to humans. Due to our interest in compounds with insecticidal activity, we have synthesized seven epoxides (2a-g), which are structurally similar to pyrethroids. The epoxides were prepared by stereospecific and regioselective epoxidation of seven dienamides (1a-g) with meta-chloroperbenzoic acid. The energies for two attainable epoxides (2g and 2g′) at their respective equilibrium geometries were calculated, and we have shown that the title epoxide (2g) is more stable than the candidate epoxide (2g′) (trans)N-hexyl-3-((E)-prop-1-en-1-yl)oxirane-2-carboxamide by 13.37 kJ mol−1. Experimental and calculated nuclear magnetic resonance chemical shifts were compared for both candidate epoxides (2g and 2g′), and a better match was achieved for the title compound (2g). The complementarity of Raman and infrared (IR) spectroscopies is a feature that can be explored for the characterization of this class of compound. This is shown by the bands around 3092 cm−1 in the Raman and absent in the IR spectra. On the other hand a strong peak at 1625 cm−1 in the IR is tiny in the Raman. Therefore the title compound was completely identified by NMR, IR, and Raman spectroscopies, and this protocol can be extended to the herein prepared epoxide analogues.