Chlamydia Co-infection Research Articles

Incidence of Chlamydia spp., FIV, FeLV in Free-Roaming Cats in Slovakia.

Free-roaming cats represent a potential reservoir of infectious diseases. The most common co-infections of free-roaming cats include mixed viral, bacterial, fungal, yeast and parasitic infections. This study focuses on the occurrence of Chlamydia spp. feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) and their co-infections. The diseases accompanied by immune suppression, such as FIV, create favourable conditions for the onset of other diseases and co-infections. The result of co-infection may be a higher susceptibility for other pathogens, as well as the occurrence of more severe clinical symptoms. The study involved 168 (113♀ and 55♂) free-roaming adult cats during the years 2021-2022. All cats belonged to Slovak citizens with permanent residence in the Slovak Republic. Blood samples and swabs (Invasive EUROTUBO® Collection sterile swab, Deltalab O8191 Rubí, Spain) from the conjunctival sac were taken from 168 cats to be later tested by PCR and ELISA methods. Statistical analysis was also performed. The overall prevalence of Chlamydia spp. was 17.26%, of FIV 15.48%, and 5.95% of FeLV. The most significant finding in our study was 3.57% co-infection of FIV and Chlamydia spp. in tested cats. The observed prevalence of Chlamydia spp. FIV and FeLV indicates that the presence of these pathogens in populations of free-roaming cats is endemic.

Anorectal Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections in women with and without reported anal sex and sex workers in sexual health centres in the Netherlands: a retrospective cohort study

Control of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection (gonorrhoea) depends on effective testing strategies. Anorectal testing in women is often done on indication of anal sex; however, anorectal infections are seen with and without anal exposure, possibly caused by autoinoculation. This study aims to enhance understanding of anorectal infections in women, by identifying risk factors for anorectal diagnosis. In this retrospective cohort study we used national surveillance data from Dutch sexual health centres from Jan 1, 2016, to Dec 31, 2021. We included cisgender women having sex with men who were tested urogenitally and anorectally for gonorrhoea. Due to different testing policies, we identified three groups: women who had not reported recent anal sex (in the past 6 months), women who had reported recent anal sex, and sex workers. Extracted data for analyses included demographics, sexual behaviour, and diagnosis of a sexually transmitted infection (STI). Per group, multivariable models using Firth's penalised maximum likelihood logistic regression were constructed, identifying determinants of anorectal gonorrhoea among all women and among gonorrhoea-positive women only. Variables included in model construction were age, education level, migration background, number of partners, condom use, partner notification, STI symptoms, having a partner who has sex with men (MSM) or a migrant partner, previous STI test, anal sex, and chlamydia and gonorrhoea diagnoses per anatomical location. In total, 117 693 women were included: 43 757 women without reported recent anal sex, 51 728 women with reported recent anal sex, and 22 208 sex workers. In all three groups, around 2% of women were gonorrhoea positive, and 70% or more of women had an anorectal infection. The strongest determinant of anorectal gonorrhoea was a concurrent urogenital gonorrhoea diagnosis (adjusted odds ratios [aOR] 782 [95% CI 605-1018]) among women without reported recent anal sex (612 [490-768] among women with reported recent anal sex, and 464 [335-652] among sex workers). Among gonorrhoea-positive women, determinants of anorectal gonorrhoea were urogenital and anorectal chlamydia co-infection (aOR 2·03 [95% CI 1·38-3·02], for women without reported anal sex) and migration background (1·44 [1·02-2·06], for women with reported anal sex). Determinants among sex workers were condomless sex (2·43 [1·55-3·82]), anal sex (1·71 [1·10-2·66]), MSM or migrant partner (1·78 [1·13-2·79]), and urogenital and anorectal chlamydia co-infection (2·28 [1·11-5·14]). These findings support the possibility of an autoinoculation process from the urogenital to the anorectal location due to the very strong correlation between urogenital and anorectal gonorrhoea, and due to the similarity of results across all three groups. Current testing strategies could miss anorectal infections, which should be considered when developing gonorrhoea prevention and control guidelines. None.

Dynamics of herpes and chlamydia co-infection in a population

A mathematical model was formulated to investigate Chlamydia trachomatis (C. trachomatis) and herpes simplex virus (HSV) co-infection in a population; taking into account that HSV can induce a viable but non-cultivable state of C. trachomatis in a host. A complete description of the global dynamics is given for the sub-systems where only one of the diseases is present. For the co-infection model, we show that the extinction or persistence of HSV is determined solely by the basic reproduction number of HSV, regardless of C. trachomatis prevalence. On the contrary, C. trachomatis can not always invade a HSV-endemic population even when it could invade a susceptible one, and this is determined by a newly introduced threshold parameter. By a limiting system approach, the existence of a co-infection steady state is shown when all reproduction numbers are greater than one. Applying the theory of asymptotically autonomous systems, we prove global stability results for the disease free and the boundary equilibria. Finally, we calibrate the model to estimate the prevalence of both diseases in the population, and compare it with epidemiological observations.

Coinfection and repeat bacterial sexually transmitted infections (STI) - retrospective study on male attendees of public STI clinics in an Asia Pacific city.

Without protective immunity, recurrent sexually transmitted infections (STI) could occur. In this study, we retrospectively collected STI diagnosis records from public STI clinics attended by an average of 6,000 male patients annually in Hong Kong in 2009-2019. We estimated the prevalence of three bacterial STI (syphilis, chlamydia and gonorrhoea) coinfection from 2009 to 2019, and examined the factors associated with coinfection in 2014/15 and repeat infection in 2009-2019. We observed an increasing coinfection prevalence in male attendees with bacterial STI over the years, which reached the highest level of 15% in 2019. Among 3,698 male patients in 2014-2015, chlamydia/gonorrhoea coinfection was the commonest among all coinfections (77%). Factors such as young age (29 or below), HIV-positive status, and a history of concurrent genital warts/herpes were positively associated with coinfection in 2014/15 in multivariable logistic regression. Of all male patients with STI coinfection in 2014/15, those of age 30-49 and who self-reported as men who have sex with men (MSM) were more likely to have been repeatedly infected in 2009-2019. The results support the implementation of regular multi-STI testing as an STI control strategy for selected communities like MSM and people living with HIV.

Neisseria gonorrhoeae Infection in Women Increases With Rising Gonococcal Burdens in Partners: Chlamydia Coinfection in Women Increases Gonococcal Burden.

Likelihood of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection in women exposed to male sex partners with increasing N. gonorrhoeae burdens and enhancement by Chlamydia trachomatis is not defined. We identified men with urethritis and their regular female sex partners. Exposure to N. gonorrhoeae burdens in men was compared in N. gonorrhoeae-infected versus -uninfected partners. Association of N. gonorrhoeae infection in women with burdens in male partners was estimated using logistic regression. Association of C. trachomatis coinfection and N. gonorrhoeae burdens in women adjusted for burdens in male partners was estimated by linear regression. In total, 1816 men were enrolled; 202 had ≥2 partners, 91 who confirmed monogamy and were enrolled; 77% were married. Seventy were partners of N. gonorrhoeae-infected men; 58 (83%) were N. gonorrhoeae infected, 26 (45%) C. trachomatis coinfected. Infected women had partners with 9.3-fold higher N. gonorrhoeae burdens than partners of uninfected women (P = .0041). Association of N. gonorrhoeae infection in women with upper quartiles of N. gonorrhoeae burdens in partners increased (odds ratios ≥ 2.97)compared to the first quartile (P = .032). N. gonorrhoeae burdens in C. trachomatis-coinfected women were 2.82-fold higher than in C. trachomatis-uninfected women (P = .036). N. gonorrhoeae infections increased in women whose partners were infected with higher N. gonorrhoeae burdens. C. trachomatis coinfection was associated with increased N. gonorrhoeae burdens in women.

Comparing adverse neonatal and maternal outcomes of chlamydia, gonorrhoea, and syphilis infections and co-infections in pregnancy.

While maternal sexually transmitted infections (STIs) during pregnancy have been extensively studied, fewer studies have directly compared the associations of different infections and co-infections or investigated the association between STIs in pregnancy and maternal outcomes. We examine associations between STIs and co-infections in pregnancy on risks of adverse neonatal and maternal outcomes. Data from the 2019 US natality files (n= 3,747,882) were used to assess the associations between STIs in pregnancy on adverse pregnancy outcomes. Five mutually exclusive STI groups were examined: a single chlamydia, syphilis, or gonorrhoeal infection, chlamydia and gonorrhoea co-infection, and syphilis co-infection (with chlamydia, gonorrhoea, or both). Demographic and obstetric characteristics among each STI group were compared to those of an uninfected comparison group. Prevalence ratios (PR) of adverse neonatal outcomes (preterm birth, small for gestational age [SGA] births, and 5-min APGAR (Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration) score < 7) and maternal outcomes (gestational hypertension) by STI status were examined using log-binomial regression. Increased prevalence of preterm birth was apparent, especially among those with a syphilis infection (PR 1.19, 95% confidence intreval [CI] 1.10, 1.30 for single infections and PR 1.31, 95% CI 1.10, 1.57 for co-infections). All STI groups, except gonorrhoea and chlamydia co-infections, were associated with an increased prevalence of gestational hypertension, with the strongest association among those with syphilis co-infections (PR 1.41, 95% CI 1.13, 1.76). An increased prevalence was of preterm birth and low APGAR scores were associated with syphilis infection. Increased prevalence of GH among those with STIs warrants further investigation into the relationships and corresponding mechanisms of STIs in pregnancy on adverse maternal outcomes.

Microbial Aetiology and Risk Factors of Community-acquired Pneumonia in Security-challenged Communities in the Northeast Nigeria

Background: Community-acquired pneumonia is still a major cause of hospital admission in the sub-Saharan Africa. It is primarily due to gram positive organisms and atypical pathogens as well as gram negative organisms. Aim: The aim of the study was to identify the common risk factors of community-acquired pneumonia and the causative pathogens of community-acquired pneumonia among adults in the Northeastern States, Nigeria. Methods: This was a hospital-based cross-sectional analytical study conducted on adult patients seen at the general outpatient clinics and the medical outpatient clinics of a referral Teaching Hospital in Gombe, Northeast Nigeria between June 2017 and January 2018. Hundred patients with clinical and or radiological diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia who presented to the General Outpatient Clinic and Medical Outpatient clinic of the hospital were recruited. A chest radiograph, sputum culture and multiplex PCR analysis was conducted on all the hundred sputa. Findings: 45(45%) of the patients had one or more identified risk factors of CAP. Of these, HIV 22 (22%), smoking 11(11%), alcohol consumption 2(2%) while 7 (7%) of these patients smoked cigarette and consumed alcohol. Culture diagnosis of CAP was negative in 58 (58%) of cases. The culture positive sputa included gram positive organisms 9 (9%) and gram-negative pathogens 33 (33%). However, with PCR analysis; Streptococcus pneumoniae 23 (23%) and Hemophilus influenzae 6(6%) were the typical pathogens detected, Legionella pneumophila 5 (5%), Chlamydia pneumoniae 3 (3%) and legionella/ chlamydia co-infection 1(1%) were the atypical pathogens identified. Conclusion: The risk factors of pneumonia identified among patients with community-acquired pneumonia in these insurgent facing communities were immunosuppressive illness, smoking and alcohol consumption. The identified microbial aetiologies were Streptococcus pneumoniae, Hemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus and gram-negative pathogens like Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Additionally, atypical pathogens such as the Legionella pneumophila and Chlamydia pneumoniae were also detected.

The prevalence and combination of gonorrhea and chlamydia in patients with urethritis and treatment outcome

ABSTRACT Introduction Urethritis is a common urinary tract infection, in which urethritis due to sexually transmitted infection accounts for a large proportion, especially among sexually active men. The most common causes include gonorrhea and chlamydia. Aim To evaluate the prevalence and combination of gonorrhea and chlamydia in patients with urethritis and treatment outcome. Material and Methods A retrospective study was caried out on all patients with urethritis due to gonorrhea and/or chlamydia at the Center for Andrology and Sexual Medicine (Vietnam-Germany University Hanoi, Vietnam) from January 2021 to March 2021. The patient's urethritis was confirmed by culture and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) testing of fluid from the patient's penis. Patient data were collected and analyzed. Main Outcome Measure The number of urethritis patients were caused by gonorrhea and/or chlamydia were collected during 3 months is 54, the combination of two bacteria was 15% and overall treatment results were good. Results The mean age of patients was 29.56 ± 6.7 (18-54) years old. There were 17/54 (31%) patients with simple gonococcal infection, 29/54 (54%) patients were diagnosed with urethritis solely due to chlamydia, 8/54 (15%) patients had urethritis due to both gonorrhea and chlamydia. Of the 25 patients with gonococcal urethritis (mono and chlamydia co-infection): 18/25 patients (72%) were culture positive, while 7 patients (28%) were positive with gonorrhea by PCR. Antibiogram results of 18 patients diagnosed with gonorrhea showed that 18/18 patients were sensitive to spectinomycin, followed by cefoxitin (15/18 patients - accounting for 83.3%), cefotaxime (12/18 patients - accounting for 66.7%) and ceftriaxone (11 out of 18 patients -61.1%). All patients diagnosed with gonococcal urethritis alone or co-infection with chlamydia recovered after the treatment. One of 29 patients with chlamydial urethritis remained symptomatic after completion of the treatment and was tested positive for chlamydia by PCR; while 28 of 29 patients showed good results. Conclusion The physician should note the presence of gonorrhea and/or chlamydia and their combination in the diagnosis of urethritis. People who are diagnosed with this disease need to be treated early with the right antibiotics for a good outcome. Disclosure Work supported by industry: no.

Modelling Chlamydia and HPV co-infection in patient-derived ectocervix organoids reveals distinct cellular reprogramming

Coinfections with pathogenic microbes continually confront cervical mucosa, yet their implications in pathogenesis remain unclear. Lack of in-vitro models recapitulating cervical epithelium has been a bottleneck to study coinfections. Using patient-derived ectocervical organoids, we systematically modeled individual and coinfection dynamics of Human papillomavirus (HPV)16 E6E7 and Chlamydia, associated with carcinogenesis. The ectocervical stem cells were genetically manipulated to introduce E6E7 oncogenes to mimic HPV16 integration. Organoids from these stem cells develop the characteristics of precancerous lesions while retaining the self-renewal capacity and organize into mature stratified epithelium similar to healthy organoids. HPV16 E6E7 interferes with Chlamydia development and induces persistence. Unique transcriptional and post-translational responses induced by Chlamydia and HPV lead to distinct reprogramming of host cell processes. Strikingly, Chlamydia impedes HPV-induced mechanisms that maintain cellular and genome integrity, including mismatch repair in the stem cells. Together, our study employing organoids demonstrates the hazard of multiple infections and the unique cellular microenvironment they create, potentially contributing to neoplastic progression.

Coxiella burnetii and Chlamydia spp. coinfection in small ruminant abortion in Portugal

Sheep and goat farming are still a traditional practice in Portugal. These animals are produced for raw material production and consumption, such as wool and milk. Abortion occurrence is an economic issue for the producer and a health and food safety concern. Chlamydia abortus and Coxiella burnetii are amongst the infectious agents with greater abortive potential. Samples from animals that suffered abortion and suspected to be carriers of Chlamydia spp. or Coxiella burnetii were screened for the presence of these agents by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. The main objective was to assess coinfection occurrence in these samples, but also evaluate their presence individually. A total of 73 tissue samples from sheep (n = 29) and goats (n = 44) were collected between 2015 and the first trimester of 2020. There were detected 25 cases of Chlamydia spp. (34.2 %), 11 cases of Coxiella burnetii (15.1 %) and 12 cases of coinfection (16.4 %). At the best of our knowledge, this is the first Portuguese study regarding Coxiella and Chlamydia coinfection in ruminants. Our data revealed a relevant presence of coinfection in small ruminants in Portugal, drawing attention for the importance of taking into account both agents in abortion diagnostic. Further investigation is warranted in order to better support veterinary diagnostic practice.

Identified risk factors for co-infection in hospitalized children infected with adenovirus in Hangzhou.

Abstract This study aimed to describe the clinical manifestations of adenovirus infections and identify potential risk factors for co-infection with chlamydia, viruses and bacteria in hospitalised children from Hangzhou, China. From January to December 2019, the characteristics of hospitalised children infected with adenovirus at Hangzhou Children's Hospital and Zhejiang Xiaoshan Hospital were collected. The clinical factors related to co-infection with chlamydia, viruses and bacteria were assessed using multivariate logistic regression analyses. A total of 5989 children were infected with adenovirus, of which 573 were hospitalised for adenovirus infection. The severity of adenovirus respiratory infection was categorised as follows: mild (bronchiolitis, 73.6%), moderate (bronchopneumonia, 17.6%) or severe (pneumonia, 8.8%). Of the 573 children who were hospitalised, 280 presented with co-infection of chlamydia, viruses or bacteria, while the remaining 293 had only adenovirus infection. Multivariate stepwise logistic regression analyses indicated that elevated ferritin was associated with an increased risk of chlamydia co-infection (odds ratio (OR) 6.50; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.56–27.11; P = 0.010). However, increased white blood cell (WBC) count was associated with a reduced risk of viral co-infection (OR 0.84; 95% CI 0.75–0.95; P = 0.006). The study indicated that co-infection with chlamydia could be affected by elevated ferritin levels. WBC levels could affect viral co-infection in hospitalised children infected with adenovirus.

Malaria and curable sexually transmitted and reproductive tract coinfection among pregnant women in rural Burkina Faso

BackgroundMalaria and sexually transmitted/reproductive tract infections (STI/RTI) are leading and preventable causes of low birthweight in sub-Saharan Africa. Reducing their impact on pregnancy outcomes requires efficient interventions that can be easily integrated into the antenatal care package. The paucity of data on malaria and STI/RTI coinfection, however, limits efforts to control these infections. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and associated factors of malaria and STI/RTI coinfection among pregnant women in rural Burkina Faso.MethodsA cross-sectional survey was conducted among 402 pregnant women attending antenatal clinics at the Yako health district. Sociodemographic and behavioral data were collected, and pregnant women were tested for peripheral malaria by microscopy. Hemoglobin levels were also measured by spectrophotometry and curable bacterial STI/RTI were tested on cervico-vaginal swabs using rapid diagnostic test for chlamydia and syphilis, and Gram staining for bacterial vaginosis. A multivariate logistic regression model was used to assess the association of malaria and STI/RTI coinfection with the characteristics of included pregnant women.ResultsThe prevalence of malaria and at least one STI/RTI coinfection was 12.9% (95% confidence interval, CI: [9.8–16.7]), malaria and bacterial vaginosis coinfection was 12.2% (95% CI: [9.3–15.9]), malaria and chlamydial coinfection was 1.6% (95% CI: [0.6–3.8]). No coinfection was reported for malaria and syphilis. The individual prevalence was 17.2%, 7.2%, 0.6%, 67.7% and 73.3%, respectively, for malaria infection, chlamydia, syphilis, bacterial vaginosis and STI/RTI combination. Only 10% of coinfections were symptomatic, and thus, 90% of women with coinfection would have been missed by the symptoms-based diagnostic approach. In the multivariate analysis, the first pregnancy (aOR = 2.4 [95% CI: 1.2–4.7]) was the only factor significantly associated with malaria and STI/RTI coinfection. Clinical symptoms were not associated with malaria and STI/RTI coinfection.ConclusionThe prevalence of malaria and curable STI/RTI coinfection was high among pregnant women. The poor performance of the clinical symptoms to predict coinfection suggests that alternative interventions are needed.

Time to resolution of genital symptoms for uncomplicated gonorrhoea: a prospective cohort study

ObjectivesTo determine the time to resolution of symptoms (TTR) following treatment of uncomplicated gonorrhoea and to identify factors associated with TTR in a cohort of sexual health clinic attendees.MethodsParticipants were...

Coinfection of Chlamydia spp. and herpesvirus in juvenile farmed Siamese crocodiles (Crocodylus siamensis) in Thailand.

Background and Aim:For a decade, chlamydial and herpesvirus infections have caused significant morbidity and mortality in farmed crocodiles. In September 2017, a total of 160 juvenile freshwater Siamese crocodiles (Crocodylus siamensis) with conjunctivitis/pharyngitis lesions were admitted at the Veterinary Aquatic Animal Research Health Care Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University. All crocodiles did not respond well to antibiotics or supportive treatments and died. This study aimed to detect and identify the causative agents associated with conjunctivitis/pharyngitis and fatal outcomes in juvenile farmed Siamese crocodiles.Materials and Methods:A total of 138 pharyngeal and conjunctival swabs and conjunctival scrapes were collected from live crocodiles. All swab and scrape samples were DNA-extracted and amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using Chlamydiaceae- and herpesvirus-specific primers. Tissue samples (brain, lung, liver, heart, spleen, and intestine) were collected from two representative postmortem animals. All tissue samples were processed for molecular and pathological analyses.Results:PCR examinations identified chlamydial and herpesvirus DNA in 92% (126/138) and 100% (138/138), respectively, of the tested swab and scrape samples. Of those positive samples, 79% (26/33), 67% (4/6), and 98% (97/99) of the pharyngeal swabs, conjunctival swabs, and conjunctival scrapes, respectively, were positive for both chlamydial and herpesvirus DNA. Histopathological examination indicated necrosis and mononuclear cell infiltration in the liver, kidney, and intestine of the affected animals. The intracytoplasmic accumulation of Chlamydia was randomly observed in the examined tissue sample. Moreover, the presence of chlamydial and herpesvirus DNA was also detected in the tissue samples, including the heart, intestine, brain, lung, liver, and spleen, of the affected animals by PCR. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that Chlamydia spp. detected in the juvenile Siamese crocodiles was notably different from other known species in the Chlamydia genus, while the herpesvirus detected in the crocodiles was closely related to crocodyline herpesvirus 1.Conclusion:Based on histopathological and molecular examinations, this report provided the first evidence of coinfection of Chlamydia spp. and crocodyline herpesvirus 1 in juvenile Siamese crocodiles in Thailand.

Spontaneous clearance of genital and extragenital Neisseria gonorrhoeae: data from GToG

ObjectivesNeisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) infection can resolve without antibiotic treatment, however the literature describing the frequency of clearance at individual sites, how rapidly it occurs and potential predictive factors is limited....

Ten-year review of a shared care approach in the management of ocular chlamydia trachomatis infections.

Since 2007, the ocular 4:1 multiplex PCR assay in NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde includes Chlamydia trachomatis (ocular chlamydia (OC)) testing. OC can be identified following routine 'viral' ophthalmic testing, including in asymptomatic patients. A published audit from 2008 identified only 25% of our OC patients attended and completed sexual health management, particularly when ophthalmologists initiated treatment. We subsequently created a shared care network between ophthalmology, virology and sexual health (including a designated sexual health advisor) to address these clinical issues. A 10-year retrospective service review audit from January 2010 to December 2019 was performed to evaluate this approach. A total of 86 patients were identified (49 males (57%), median age 23 years (range 16-77)). Ophthalmologists initiated treatment for 37 patients (43%) prior to onward sexual health referral. Of this group, 5 (13.5%) received sub-optimal treatments, and 15 (40.5%) subsequently failed to attend sexual health services for partner notification. Of the 49 (57%) patients who attended sexual health, 25 (51%) had genital chlamydia co-infection, and 98% received adequate systemic treatment. All were offered full sexual health screening and 46 (93.9%) completed partner notification. This shared care approach more than doubled the proportion of OC patients attending sexual health services over this 10-year period (previously 25%, now 57%). Ophthalmologists could defer treatment to sexual health for more effective OC management; however, challenges remain to address real-world issues of non-attendance, inadequate treatment and incomplete contact tracing. We recommend a multi-disciplinary approach to best manage OC cases identified following ophthalmic testing.

Chlamydiales order bacteria in swine with reproductive disoders. Detection of Waddlia chondrophila in swine

Chlamydial infections cause significant economic expenses due to infertility, insufficient productivity growth, and high mortality rates among young stock. Bacteria of the Chlamydiaceae family (Chlamydia suis Chlamydia abortus, Chlamydia psittaci and Chlamydia pecorum) are well known pathogens isolated from pigs. The diseases associated with these species are widely studied; monitoring and prevention are carried out. However, chlamydia-related bacteria in swine remain poorly studied in Ukraine. The purpose of the study was to check samples, taken from swine from private farms in the Poltava region, Ukraine, for the presence of Chlamydia-like organisms. Determination of the possibility of coinfection of Chlamydia and Chlamydia-like organisms. We examined 28 samples from two private farms in the Poltava region (23 samples from sows, and 5 samples from boars). The studies were carried out using PCR with primers designed in our laboratory. As a result of the study, Chlamydiaceae-positive samples were not detected among sows. Along with it, 2 out of 5 samples taken from boars were found to be Chlamydiaceae-positive. The total number of Chlamydiaceae-positive samples was 2 out of 28 (7.14%). The total number of Waddlia-positive samples was 8 out of 28 (28.7%). A mixture of Chlamydiaceae and Waddlia chondrophila infection was found in one sample. Parachlamydia acanthamoebae was not found in any sample. There are no reports of the detection of Waddlia chondrophila in samples from swine in the sources available for us, so this publication might be the first such report. Due to the fact that W. chondrophila was first detected in the samples selected from pigs, the experiment was repeated three times, and the identity of the PCR product of W. chondrophila-positive samples was additionally verified by restriction analysis. Relatively small number of samples, in our research as well as in previous studies, does not allow us to make accurate calculations about the prevalence of chlamydia-like organisms in swine. Further research are required and might include broader sampling, isolation of the pathogen, sequencing of its genome, experimental infection, determination of pathomorphological changes. All the listed above, would help to determine significance of the study along with the role of W. chondrophila in chlamydia infection in swine.

Co- but not Sequential Infection of DCs Boosts Their HIV-Specific CTL-Stimulatory Capacity.

Pathogenic bacteria and their microbial products activate dendritic cells (DCs) at mucosal surfaces during sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and therefore might also differently shape DC functions during co-infection with HIV-1. We recently illustrated that complement (C) coating of HIV-1 (HIV-C), as primarily found during the acute phase of infection before appearance of HIV-specific antibodies, by-passed SAMHD1-mediated restriction in DCs and therefore mediated an increased DC activation and antiviral capacity. To determine whether the superior antiviral effects of HIV-C-exposed DCs also apply during STIs, we developed a co-infection model in which DCs were infected with Chlamydia spp. simultaneously (HIV-C/Chlam-DCs or HIV/Chlam-DCs) or a sequential infection model, where DCs were exposed to Chlamydia for 3 or 24 h (Chlam-DCs) followed by HIV-1 infection. Co-infection of DCs with HIV-1 and Chlamydia significantly boosted the CTL-stimulatory capacity compared to HIV-1-loaded iDCs and this boost was independent on the opsonization pattern. This effect was lost in the sequential infection model, when opsonized HIV-1 was added delayed to Chlamydia-loaded DCs. The reduction in the CTL-stimulatory capacity of Chlam-DCs was not due to lower HIV-1 binding or infection compared to iDCs or HIV-C/Chlam-DCs, but due to altered fusion and internalization mechanisms within DCs. The CTL-stimulatory capacity of HIV-C in Chlam-DCs correlated with significantly reduced viral fusion compared to iDCs and HIV-C/Chlam-DCs and illustrated considerably increased numbers of HIV-C-containing vacuoles than iDCs. The data indicate that Chlamydia co-infection of DCs mediates a transient boost of their HIV-specific CTL-stimulatory and antiviral capacity, while in the sequential infection model this is reversed and associated with hazard to the host.

HPV-Chlamydial Coinfection, Prevalence, and Association with Cervical Intraepithelial Lesions: A Pilot Study at Mbarara Regional Referral Hospital.

Background Human Pappilloma Virus (HPV) is the necessary cause of cervical cancer. A number of risk factors are believed to influence the role of HPV in the development of cervical cancer. This is so because majority of HPV infections are cleared and only a few are able to result into cancer. Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) is considered a potential cofactor in the development of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), although different studies have produced contradicting information (Silins et al., 2005, Bellaminutti et al., 2014, and Bhatla et al., 2013). The objective of this cross-sectional study was to determine the prevalence and association of HPV-Chlamydial coinfection with cervical intraepithelial lesions and other risk factors for cervical intraepithelial lesions at a hospital in south western Uganda (MRRH). Methods The study included 93 participants, with an age range of 25 to 80 years, from whom cervical specimens were collected and enrolment forms were completed upon consent. Experienced midwives collected one cervical smear and two endocervical swabs from each participant. The swabs were used for HPV DNA and Chlamydia trachomatis antigen testing. Data was entered in Microsoft excel and analysed using STATA 12 software. With the help of spearman's correlation at the 0.05 level of significance, bivariate and multivariate analysis were done by logistic regression, to determine associations of risk factors to cervical lesions. Results The results showed the prevalence of HPV-Chlamydial coinfection to be 8.6% (8/93). Positive Pap smear results were found in 60.22% (56/93) participants, most of whom had low grade squamous intraepitherial lesion (LSIL) (54.84%). HPV-Chlamydial coinfection showed a significant correlation with a positive cytology result and only relatively significantly correlated with LSIL grade of cytological positivity. HPV was found to be the risk factors associated with cervical intraepithelial lesions at MRRH. Conclusion HPV, Chlamydia, and HPV-Chlamydial coinfection are prevalent infections and there is a likelihood of association between HPV-Chlamydial coinfection and with cervical intraepithelial lesions. This study recommends general sexually transimitted infections (STIS) screening for every woman that turns up for cervical cancer screening and a larger study, probably a multicentre study.

A Macaque Model for Rectal Lymphogranuloma Venereum and Non-Lymphogranuloma Venereum Chlamydia trachomatis: Impact on Rectal Simian/Human Immunodeficiency Virus Acquisition.

Sustained genital tract inflammation caused by sexually transmitted infections (STIs) is known to increase risk of vaginal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections but, to our knowledge, there are no nonhuman primate studies that have evaluated its link to rectal HIV acquisition. Rhesus macaques inoculated with Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) (serovars LGV-L2 and CT-E; n = 7) or saline (n = 7) received up to 20 rectal challenges twice a week of simian/HIV immunodeficiency virus (SHIVSF162p3). SHIV viremia was determined by real-time PCR and Chlamydia infection by APTIMA Combo 2 testing. The rectal cytokine-chemokine levels were evaluated by multiplex bead assays. Rectal Chlamydia infection was maintained throughout the study. We did not observe significant differences (P = 1.0) in frequency of SHIV acquisition between the STI and control arms. It took fewer SHIV challenges to infect the STI animals although the difference was not significant (P = 0.59). There were no significant differences in peak plasma viremia between STI and control arms (P = 0.63). The association of plasma viremia with rectal shedding was significantly different by arm (P = 0.038). In the first such study in a macaque model, we did not observe an increased risk of SHIV acquisition due to rectal Chlamydia coinfection. This macaque model can be further developed and expanded to better investigate the impact of different rectal STIs on HIV acquisition.