Children's Eyewitness Research Articles

Uniforms affect the accuracy of children's eyewitness identification decisions

AbstractA substantial proportion of line‐up identifications involving child eyewitnesses in the UK are conducted by police officers wearing uniform. This study examined the possibility that wearing a uniform constitutes an authority cue that adversely affects a child's ability to make accurate eyewitness identifications. Sixty participants aged 9–10 years old witnessed a staged crime and were later asked to identify a ‘burglar’ from a simultaneous line‐up using a 2 (uniform: present vs. absent) × 2 (target: present vs. absent) design. Children in the uniform present conditions made significantly more choices than children in the uniform absent conditions. More importantly, in the presence of a uniform, children made significantly more false identifications in target‐absent line‐ups. Analysis of supplementary, identification‐related variables (identification time and confidence, state anxiety) suggested that (1) the children experienced uncertainty if the target was absent from the line‐up, but (2) this uncertainty was not expressed when the line‐up administrator wore a uniform, leading to an increase in false identifications. Implications for line‐up administration procedures for children are discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Event report training: An examination of the efficacy of a new intervention to improve children's eyewitness reports

AbstractThis study tested the efficacy of Event Report Training (ERT), a training procedure designed to improve children's memory reports and decrease suggestibility. Children (N = 58) participated in two forensically relevant play events. Two weeks later, children received ERT or participated in control procedures, after which they received a memory interview. Results indicated that ERT decreased suggestibility to abuse‐related questions in preschoolers; their responses were highly accurate and age differences were eliminated. ERT did not increase the amount of information preschoolers provided in response to open‐ended questions. However, with ERT 7‐ to 8‐year‐olds reported 32% more information which included a 32% increase in actions, without an accompanying increase in incorrect information. Due to school‐aged children's high accuracy rates, it was impossible to gauge the effectiveness of ERT in reducing suggestibility. The failure to obtain an effect of ERT in preschoolers' open‐ended recall is discussed in terms of their cognitive‐developmental limitations. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A temporal discriminability account of children's eyewitness suggestibility

Children's suggestibility is typically measured using a three-stage 'event-misinformation-test' procedure. We examined whether suggestibility is influenced by the time delays imposed between these stages, and in particular whether the temporal discriminability of sources (event and misinformation) predicts performance. In a novel approach, the degree of source discriminability was calculated as the relative magnitude of two intervals (the ratio of event-misinformation and misinformation-test intervals), based on an adaptation of existing 'ratio-rule' accounts of memory. Five-year-olds (n =150) watched an event, and were exposed to misinformation, before memory for source was tested. The absolute event-test delay (12 versus 24 days) and the 'ratio' of event-misinformation/misinformation-test intervals (11:1, 3:1, 1:1, 1:3 and 1:11) were manipulated across participants. The temporal discriminability of sources, measured by the ratio, was indeed a strong predictor of suggestibility. Most importantly, if the ratio was constant (e.g. 18/6 versus 9/3 days), performance was remarkably similar despite variations in absolute delay (e.g. 24 versus 12 days). This intriguing finding not only extends the ratio-rule of distinctiveness to misinformation paradigms, but also serves to illustrate a new empirical means of differentiating between explanations of suggestibility based on interference between sources and disintegration of source information over time.

Effect of Socially Encountered Misinformation and Delay on Children's Eyewitness Testimony

This study investigated the impact of different types of post-event misinformation and a 3-month delay on children's suggestibility. Children aged 9–11 years old were interviewed about a witnessed event, on three occasions: immediately after witnessing the event (Baseline), after exposure to misinformation (Time 1) and after a 3-month delay (Time 2). With regard to misinformation, the children were allocated to one of three conditions: exposure to a biased narrative, exposure to a biased confederate, and no exposure to misleading information. Suggestibility was significantly higher when misinformation was introduced socially, by a confederate, than when it was introduced via a written narrative. Suggestibility scores, however, for all the children were significantly lower after a 3-month delay, although those who had been exposed to misinformation were still more suggestible than those in the control group.

Could Target Age Explain Identification Accuracy Differences Between Child and Adult Eyewitnesses?

Previous research indicates that the age of the witness making an identification affects accuracy. Few studies, however, have examined the effect of the culprit's age on identification accuracy. The present study examined accuracy rates of adult witnesses for a child or adult target. Correct identification rates were higher for the child compared to the adult target, but correct rejection rates were higher for the adult compared to the child target. With regard to choosing behaviour, witnesses were more likely to select a line-up member than reject the line-up when presented with the child compared to the adult target. These results suggest that differences in accuracy between witnesses may be inherent to the age of the target being identified rather than the witness' memory for the target.

The wildcard: A simple technique for improving children's target‐absent lineup performance

AbstractWe attempted to increase children's willingness to reject target‐absent lineups by making identification and rejection response procedures highly comparable. Eight‐ to eleven‐year‐old children (N = 159) were briefly exposed to a confederate in the context of a staged event, and 24–48 hours later completed either a target‐present or target‐absent photographic lineup task. Within each lineup condition, children were either told to tell the experimenter if the target was not present (control condition), or provided with an additional photograph of a silhouetted figure with a large question mark superimposed (wildcard condition), and asked to point to this photograph if the target was not present. The wildcard increased children's accuracy on the target‐absent lineup without affecting their target‐present performance. In fact, performance was increased to a point at which target‐absent and target‐present accuracy did not differ significantly. These findings offer a promising, easily‐implemented intervention for reducing children's eyewitness identification errors. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Pre-professional mandated reporters' understanding of young children's eyewitness testimony: Implications for training

This study examines the knowledge and understanding of child eyewitness testimony held by 261 graduate and undergraduate students in majors or disciplines that are most commonly associated with careers that will give them mandated reporter status (e.g., Administration of Justice, Special Education). Subjects were asked to rate their beliefs about children's communication, memory, ability to provide accurate descriptions of events and people, interview techniques, and the use of anatomically correct dolls. Results indicated that, overall, the participants' beliefs about interviewing young children and their knowledge of their abilities as witnesses were consistent with the extant scientific literature. However, there was a substantial sub-set of participants who were less accurate in their beliefs and knowledge. Analysis of the relation between educational level and knowledge, showed that educational level per se might be less important than the nature of the educational background itself. The results of this study suggest the need for stronger interdisciplinary curricula regarding children's eyewitness testimony. Training programs for pre-professionals should expand to include communication skills and assessment of maltreatment and associated issues, as well as on-going opportunities to incorporate the material into actual practice with hands-on experiences.

Young children's eyewitness memory for a complex real-life event: Developmental change from 4- to 6-year-olds

Young children's eyewitness memory for a complex real-life event: Developmental change from 4- to 6-year-olds

The weapon focus effect in child eyewitnesses

The present study investigated whether children would exhibit the weapon focus effect that has been demonstrated with adult eyewitnesses. Participants (4- and 5-year-olds, 7- and 8-year-olds, and adults) watched a videotape in which a target individual portraying one of two schema roles and holding either a weapon or a neutral object steals some money. Witnesses of all ages described the target's physical appearance less accurately if the target held an object that was inconsistent rather than consistent with his schema role. Additionally, there were age effects for both accuracy and amount of information reported. The results indicate that the weapon focus effect generalizes to child witnesses and that it probably occurs because weapons are inconsistent with an activated schema.

Juror Perceptions of Child Eyewitness Testimony in a Sexual Abuse Trial

ABSTRACT A mock child sexual abuse trial was used to study juror perceptions of child eyewitnesses. The child's age (5, 11, or 16) and level of involvement (victim or bystander) were varied across conditions in order to test their impact on juror perceptions and verdict. Results indicated a significant effect of level of involvement on the verdict; defendants in trials involving a bystander witness received higher guilt ratings than defendants in trials with a victim-witness. In addition, jurors perceived the child's eyewitness testimony to be more believable when the child was younger. Implications for the impact of these findings on real-life child sexual abuse cases are discussed.

Unwarranted Assumptions about Children's Testimonial Accuracy

We examine eight unwarranted assumptions made by expert witnesses, forensic interviewers, and legal scholars about the reliability of children's eyewitness reports. The first four assumptions modify some central beliefs about the nature of suggestive interviews, age-related differences in resistance to suggestion, and thresholds necessary to produce tainted reports. The fifth unwarranted assumption involves the influence of both individual and interviewer factors in determining children's suggestibility. The sixth unwarranted assumption concerns the claim that suggested reports are detectable. The seventh unwarranted assumption concerns new findings about how children deny, disclose, and/or recant their abuse. Finally, we examine unwarranted statements about the value of science to the forensic arena. It is important not only for researchers but also expert witnesses and court-appointed psychologists to be aware of these unwarranted assumptions.

What makes a good investigative interviewer of children?

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine police officers' perceptions about their role in interviewing children, and to compare these perceptions with those of child eyewitness memory experts.Design/methodology/approachA diverse sample of 23 police officers (from three states of Australia) individually participated in in‐depth interviews where they were asked to define what makes a good interviewer in the area of child abuse investigation.FindingsIrrespective of the background of the officers, the important role of interviewers' personal attributes was emphasised (e.g. having a relaxed, empathetic, warm nature). Such personal attributes were more prominent in the participants' descriptions than knowledge of legislation and children's development, prior job experience, and interviewing techniques.Research limitations/implicationsThe paper shows that while child eyewitness memory experts acknowledge the importance of establishing a bond of mutual trust between the interviewer and the child, the importance of utilising an open‐ended questioning style for enhancing rapport, and for eliciting a detailed and accurate account of abuse cannot be overstated. The possible reasons for the police officers' emphasis on personal qualities are discussed.Originality/valueThis paper has revealed that limitations in the competency of police officers in interviewing children is not merely a problem of “doing” (i.e. learning to ask open‐ended questions), but may also reflect ingrained attitudinal and organisational barriers.

Child witness research and forensic interviews of young children: A review

In this article, we provide an introduction to child eyewitness memory issues that are frequently discussed and debated, both within the research and practice communities. We review several of the central areas of research on child eyewitness memory and some of the most promising protocols aimed at standardizing and improving child forensic interviews. We focus primarily on memory in young children, because they pose particular challenges. Research on the use of props and external cues to prompt young children's memory is discussed. We also review research on professionals' knowledge and attitudes about children as witnesses. It is concluded that we must guard against overly negative or overly optimistic views of children's abilities.

Children's Eyewitness Memory: A Modern History and Contemporary Commentary

This article provides a modern historical overview of child eyewitness research, as well as an evaluative commentary on the field, with special emphasis on children's eyewitness memory and suggestibility in child sexual abuse cases. Four historical periods are reviewed: the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s (to date). Examples of legal cases that inform scientific research are described, discussion of relevant laws is presented, and a review of selected studies is offered. It is concluded that although we have learned a great deal about children's eyewitness memory and suggestibility over the last few decades, simple answers are evasive and much more research is needed.

Wailing Babies in Her Wake.

The scientific study of child witnesses has influenced both developmental science and jurisprudence concerning children. Focusing on the author's own studies, 4 categories of research are briefly reviewed: (a) children's eyewitness memory and suggestibility; (b) memory for traumatic events in childhood; (c) disclosure of child sexual abuse; and (d) experiences of child victim/witnesses within the legal system. Implications for psychology and for legal practice are discussed.

A face in the crowd: The influences of familiarity and delay on preschoolers’ recognition

Preschoolers’ abilities to recognize former caregivers were examined. Participants were 35 children from three preschool classes. Caregivers volunteered in the classes over a 7-week period. At an initial assessment, children were asked to select former caregivers from a line-up of five photographs, and to rank-order the caregivers by personal preference. Recognition was assessed again after 3 months. Although older toddlers performed at chance levels, clear age-related increases in recognition performance were observed, with older preschoolers recognizing 86% of the volunteers at time 2. Younger children responded less consistently over time than older children. Preference for individual caregivers affected recognition performance among younger, but not older, preschoolers. Implications for children's eyewitness testimony are considered.

The Confidence-Accuracy and Decision Latency-Accuracy Relationships in Children's Eyewitness Identification

This study examined the eyewitness confidence-accuracy and decision latency-accuracy relations in a sample of children (N = 240) and a control group of adolescents (N = 159). Participants witnessed a video of a simulated crime and later attempted an identification from an eight-person photospread line-up on a computer screen under target-present conditions. Both identification confidence and decision latency were measured. Although the confidence-accuracy correlations were similarly modest for both samples, the subjective certainty-accuracy relation clearly distinguished children from adolescents, with children displaying pronounced over-confidence. For the decision latency-accuracy relation, children were not distinguished from adolescents, although there was evidence that children's decisions were more impulsive. The results suggest that, in contrast with patterns emerging in research with adults, neither confidence nor decision latency has promise for distinguishing accurate from inaccurate identification responses in children.

The relation between inhibitory control and children's eyewitness memory

The hypothesis that inhibitory control—an aspect of executive functioning—is related to children's suggestibility was tested. Five- to 7-year-olds (N = 125) participated in a staged event, were suggestively interviewed, and were later given a recognition test. Conflict and interference measures of inhibitory control were taken and compared to children's ability to identify details from the target event and reject details from non-target sources (i.e. false suggestions, details from prior events). Children with higher than average verbal retroactive inhibition skills were more resistant to suggestions than children with poor inhibitory control. Collectively, age and retroactive inhibition skills accounted for 17% of the variance in suggestibility scores, with each making independent contributions. Three other measures of inhibition did not, however, correlate significantly with resistance to suggestion. The findings are discussed in relation to a multi-component view of eyewitness memory emphasizing links between inhibitory control, suggestibility, and source monitoring. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Timing moderates the effects of repeated suggestive interviewing on children's eyewitness memory

AbstractThe relative role of the timing and repetition of misinformation on the accuracy of children's recall was examined in two experiments. Kindergarten children participated in a magic show and about 40 days later had a memory test. Between the magic show and the memory test, the children were suggestively interviewed either one time in a relatively ‘early’ interview (temporally closer to the magic show than the memory test) or a relatively ‘late’ interview (closer to the memory test than the magic show), or in both suggestive interviews. The timing of the suggestive interviewing was manipulated so that the interview was temporally distant from the event or memory test or temporally close to the event or memory test. Repeated interviewing heightened misinformation effects only when the children received the two interview sessions temporally close to the event and memory test. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A real‐life event enhances the accuracy of preschoolers' recall

AbstractChildren's memory and susceptibility to misinformation about a real‐life and video event were examined. Eighty‐six three‐ to four‐year‐olds and five‐ to six‐year‐olds observed an event either in real life or on video. Immediately afterward, they freely recalled the event and answered misleading questions about central and descriptive information. Three‐ to four‐year‐olds in the video condition were less likely to accurately recall descriptive information than three‐ to four‐year‐olds in the live condition and five‐ to six‐year‐olds in either condition. Children in the video condition were less accurate in response to misleading questions than those in the live condition. When video condition three‐ to four‐year‐olds in Experiment 2 were asked nonmisleading questions that prompted them for descriptive information, they recalled descriptors less accurately than those in the live condition. These results have particularly important implications for studies that utilize video events when investigating children's eyewitness memory. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.