Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM) offending has increased in recent years. Rather than being predominantly driven by an increase in associated sexual interest in children, this may be understood as a pattern of content escalation, from mainstream to extreme or even illegal pornography. This study examined patterns of content escalation in pornography consumption, psychosocial predictors of such escalation and their association with engagement with CSAM in a cross-sectional study with a non-clinical male sample (N = 228). Participants reported arousal, viewing frequency, and content escalation across mainstream, extreme and illegal categories. Principal component analysis revealed five distinct content escalation clusters: Dominance/Degradation, Extreme/Harmful, Non-Traditional Niche, Normative and Atypical. While mainstream content exhibited the highest absolute viewing and mean escalation, relative escalation was disproportionately observed in more extreme and niche categories, such as S&M, fetish, teen, group sex and violent content.

Child sexual exploitation and abuse in digital environments: Mapping two decades of research.

ABSTRACT Child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) research is an increasingly important area of study. Key research areas include offenders and offending behavior; legal and societal issues; victimology; treatment; investigations; digital forensics; and deterrence. Many publications are multidisciplinary, with fields including law, psychology, criminal justice, sociology, digital forensics, and data analytics. This study examines the historical body of research on CSEM offending through a scientometric review. The Web of Science Core Collection was searched for relevant research with no date restrictions, and 990 responsive papers published between 1978 and the present were identified. The key authors in the field included Michael Seto (n = 31, fc = 10.87), Ethel Quayle (n = 21, fc = 7.49), and Kathryn Seigfried-Spellar (n = 12, fc = 7.17), with the paper “Prevalence and Characteristics of Youth Sexting: A National Study” by Mitchell et al. identified as the most cited. Historiographical analysis identified works by Ethel Quayle and Max Taylor, as well as Michael Seto, as seminal papers in the field. Keyword analyses found the terms child pornography and indecent images decreasing over time, and the terms CSEM and child sexual abuse material increasing in usage.

Commercial content moderators (CCMs) serve as the hidden first responders of the internet, sifting through flagged user-generated content to keep online platforms safe. In their work, they have repetitive, frequent exposure to traumatic content, including child sexual abuse material, graphic violence, death, hate rhetoric, and more. Yet, relative to other occupations in which trauma exposure is common, the mental health effects of content moderation have received little study. This is in large part because it is a newer profession that arose with the widespread adoption of social media. In this paper, we describe the work and working conditions typical of CCMs and how these contribute to potential mental health impacts. Global labor inequities are discussed with regard to how outsourcing moderation to low- and middle-income countries with stressful working conditions may exacerbate the risk of posttraumatic stress. Research on the mental health effects of content moderation is synthesized. We propose a research agenda for preventing and mitigating the negative mental health impacts of trauma exposure that CCMs experience. Finally, the paper outlines principles for trauma-informed, psychologically safe moderation systems and discusses implications for clinicians, employers, and occupational health professionals.

Early exposure to child sexual abuse material: Prevalence, circumstances and psychosocial functioning.

Sexual interest in children is an important risk factor for sexual (re)offending against children. We aimed to consolidate the validity and reliability of the Explicit and Implicit Sexual Interest Profile (EISIP), which combines self-report, viewing time (VT) measures, and Implicit Association Tests (IATs) to assess sexual interest in children. To further examine EISIP validity, several ways to score the VT task were investigated. The EISIP produced mostly acceptable validity (r > .30) and reliability (ρ > .70) indices. Only minimal differences between the scoring methods underlined the robustness of the VT measure. We additionally compared the sexual interest of the N = 516 men based on their offenses: using child sexual abuse material (CSAM), contact offenses against extrafamilial or intrafamilial children, mixed offenses, and other offenses. Men with mixed offenses had the highest indications of sexual interest in children, while participants with intrafamilial or other offenses had the lowest. Individuals with CSAM convictions had lower scores than originally expected and composed a heterogenic subgroup. Explorative analyses additionally indicated group differences regarding antisociality. Our results support the distinction of people convicted of sexual offenses against children into subtypes. The need for further differentiations (i.e., in the CSAM group) is discussed.

Child sexual abuse (CSA) and child sexual abuse material (CSAM) exist in a "Dark Field" (German: Dunkelfeld), where a vast majority of incidents occur without ever becoming known to authorities. Therapy is a potential strategy in reducing CSA offence risk and CSAM consumption. However, public stigma towards individuals with a sexual interest in children (ISIC) is extensive and hostile to a level that discourages engagement of ISIC in therapy. Implementation of measures to reduce the barriers to therapy for ISIC is critical to improve the mental well-being of ISIC, improve coping strategies, and thereby reduce CSA and CSAM. In this paper, we examine ISIC treatment anxieties and show that anonymity increases ISIC comfort towards the prospect of engaging in therapy. Our findings indicate that anonymous digital therapy could increase engagement in therapy for pedohebephilia by ISIC.

ABSTRACT Practitioners’ preparedness for working with technology-facilitated child sexual abuse (TF-CSEA) has attracted limited attention in Australia. This study maps the capacity of the Australian sexual assault sector to support victims of TF-CSEA, including victims of child sexual abuse material (CSAM) and online child sexual extortion. A national survey of 124 practitioners was conducted to assess individual, organisational, and systemic dimensions of sector capacity. Practitioners’ self-reported experiences were treated as indicators of the sector’s collective readiness. Quantitative data from closed questions were analysed descriptively, and qualitative responses were coded thematically. Most practitioners reported only moderate preparedness to support victims, and few had access to specialist training or TF-CSEA-specific resources. Services predominantly relied on traditional “in-person” child sexual abuse (CSA) frameworks that offer limited guidance for managing digital evidence, online harms, and cross-jurisdictional issues. Practitioners identified systemic barriers, including fragmented interagency coordination, unclear referral pathways, and insufficient policy support. The findings highlight that sector capacity limitations reflect structural and policy constraints rather than practitioner deficits. This underscores the need for investment in specialist training, national coordination frameworks, and updated service systems that address online forms of abuse in Australia. IMPLICATIONS Advanced, accredited training can help social workers and related professionals keep pace with effective supports for children and adults who have experienced technology-facilitated child sexual abuse. Extending existing child sexual abuse practice frameworks to include online harms can strengthen social work and allied practice in responding to legal, digital, and psychological complexities. Clearer collaboration between social workers, law enforcement, and online safety agencies can improve referral pathways and reduce uncertainty for victims seeking support.

Identifying static and dynamic risk factors for child sexual offending is essential for risk assessment and the guidance of therapeutic interventions. However, individuals who commit offences involving child sexual abuse material (CSAM) offenders, especially those that are unknown to law enforcement agencies, have been less extensively studied. This study investigated static and dynamic risk factors for undetected CSAM offending. A sample of n = 102 men who are diagnosed with paedophilic disorder and had voluntarily participated in a German prevention project focusing on individuals at risk of offending were examined. A binary logistic regression analysis was conducted to explore the associations between risk factors and CSAM-offending (CSAM offenders: n = 72; non-CSAM offenders: n = 30). Hypersexuality as measured by the subscale ‘consequences’ of the HBI-19 and offence-supportive cognitions significantly increased the odds of CSAM offending. The present study underscores the importance of examining the generalisability of static and dynamic risk factors for CSA to the group of CSAM offenders. A major strength of this study is that it investigates a group of offenders that is difficult to approach: men with a paedophilic and/or hebephilic sexual preference disorder who are unknown to law enforcement agencies.

The present study provides normative data for the Child Pornography Offender Risk Tool (CPORT) by aggregating individual-level data from six routine samples (N = 956) across Canada, Europe, and the United Kingdom. All cases were men adjudicated for child sexual abuse and exploitation material (CSAEM) offenses. Meta-analyses revealed stable predictive accuracy for the CPORT across studies (AUCs = .728 and .713, respectively, for any sexual recidivism and for CSAEM-specific recidivism). Estimated recidivism rates increased with CPORT scores, ranging from 3% to 41% for any sexual reoffending and from 2% to 32% for CSAEM-specific reoffending. Risk ratios indicated that individuals with a CPORT score of 5 reoffended at approximately five times the rate of those with the median score (CPORT = 2), with even higher rates observed among those scoring 6. Percentile norms were also derived, with a median CPORT score of 2 corresponding to the 64th percentile in terms of risk for sexual recidivism. These CPORT norms can help facilitate improved risk communication and align practice with the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model.

As young children increasingly interact with information and communication technologies, they face significant digital safety risks, including exposure to explicit content, online grooming, and the creation of self-generated child sexual abuse material. Despite these growing threats, South Africa lacks a structured digital safety framework within its national early childhood education curriculum, despite the possibility of integration within existing subjects. This study aims to develop a model for effective digital safety education in early childhood. Guided by the digital phallic development framework, which integrates Freud’s psychosexual development theory (specifically the phallic stage) with the CO:RE 3 C’s model of digital safety risks, this study offers a comprehensive lens for understanding sexual digital safety risks in young children. It is further underpinned by the digital safety education collaboration (DSEC) model, highlighting the essential intersectoral partnerships needed for effective digital safety education. Employing a qualitative, constructivist methodology, data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with six stakeholders representing the sectors identified in the DSEC model. Additionally, four authentic South African policy and guidance documents referencing digital safety were analysed. Thematic analysis, supported by Atlas.ti and ChatGPT, revealed a critical need for developmentally appropriate, holistic digital safety education and identified gaps in policy, training, and intersectoral communication. The findings underscore the urgency of coordinated action among the education, community, and legal sectors to empower and protect young children from sexual digital risks in an increasingly digital world. This study contributes to scholarship by creating a theoretical and practical framework for digital safety education in early childhood.

ABSTRACT This article examines the fragile balance between legality and creativity in the depiction of virtual child imagery in anime and manga. While these cultural products are fictional, their artistic style often emphasizing infantilized or youthful features raises significant legal and ethical challenges. Adopting a qualitative approach, this study critically evaluates Malaysian legal framewords and highlights how the relevant statutory provisions treat fictional or animated depctions on par with real child sexual abuse material, despite the absence of real victims. Comparative reference is made to Australia’s Online Safety Act 2021, demonstrating how regulatory models attempt to safeguard children while accounting for freedom of expression. Findings suggest that Malaysia’s current approach risks over-criminalization of artistic works, leading to a potential slippery slope where virtual depictions are equated with actual child exploitation. The study underscores the importance of developing nuanced legal frameworks that both safeguard childnren’s rights and respect creative freedoms.

General Background: The rapid development of information and communication technology has facilitated the spread of criminal activities in digital environments, including the distribution of child pornography on social media platforms. Specific Background: Children, as rights-bearing legal subjects requiring special protection, are increasingly exposed to sexual exploitation within open and anonymous online spaces, raising significant legal concerns in Indonesia. Knowledge Gap: Although multiple legal instruments regulate this crime, there remains limited clarity regarding the practical implementation and coordination of these regulations in addressing accountability. Aims: This study aims to analyze the existing legal frameworks and examine the forms of criminal accountability for perpetrators distributing child pornography content on social media. Results: Using a normative juridical method with statutory and conceptual approaches, the findings indicate that Indonesia’s legal provisions are normatively comprehensive and have been strengthened through various laws and regulations; however, enforcement faces persistent challenges, including difficulties in digital evidence collection, perpetrator tracking, and inter-agency coordination. Novelty: The study provides an integrated examination of multiple legal instruments alongside practical enforcement barriers in the digital context. Implications: Strengthening law enforcement capacity and improving regulatory synergy are necessary to ensure effective and just child protection in digital spaces. Highlights: Legal provisions addressing the issue are comprehensive and increasingly reinforced. Practical challenges arise in evidence handling, perpetrator identification, and institutional coordination. Strengthened enforcement capacity and regulatory alignment are required for improved child protection. Keywords: Criminal Accountability, Child Pornography, Social Media.

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Laws regulating pornographic deepfakes are written to prohibit “digital forgeries,” “false” images, or media “indistinguishable” from “authentic” recordings. Yet the typical anti-deepfake law covers materials that aren’t forgeries, aren’t false, and that reasonable observers can easily distinguish from authentic recordings. Though drafted as if they regulate statements of fact, anti-deepfake laws actually target certain outrageous depictions per se—and rightly so, because pornographic deepfakes cause harm irrespective of their truth or falsity. However, the inapposite language of facts results in statutes with crucial ambiguities. Moreover, because anti-deepfake laws ban outrageous depictions irrespective of the factual assertions they make, they differ fundamentally from the information-privacy and defamation regimes that they superficially resemble. Instead of regulating true or false disclosures of fact, anti-deepfake laws fall into a distinct and disfavored category: laws that forbid expression because it is outrageous. This Article begins by excavating the internal tension of anti-deepfake statutes and explaining the laws’ theoretical underpinnings. It shows that the laws mean to redress highly offensive appropriations of likeness, but employ the incommensurable vocabulary of a different dignitary harm: the circulation of facts about persons. The Article then uses semiotic theory to explain how deepfakes differ from the media they mimic and why those differences matter legally. Photographs and video recordings record events. Deepfakes merely depict them. Justifications for regulating records do not necessarily justify regulating depictions. Many laws—covering everything from trademark dilution to flag burning to “morphed” child sexual abuse material (CSAM)—have banned outrageous depictions as such. Several remain in effect today. Yet when such bans are challenged, courts mischaracterize imagery to sidestep constitutional scrutiny: Courts pretend fictional depictions are factual records. Anti-deepfake laws resist this dodge. Courts considering these laws will be forced to confront head-on the extent to which a statute may ban outrageous expression as such.

ABSTRACT Child sexual abuse material (CSAM) is commonly searched for on the open web. This study evaluates the reThink chatbot that was integrated into a warning message page on Pornhub in the United Kingdom (UK). The chatbot directs users searching for CSAM to the StopItNow support service. Evaluation data showed a significant decrease in CSAM searches following the chatbot’s deployment, suggesting its disruptive effect. These findings highlight the potential for situational crime prevention strategies in mitigating CSAM within mainstream pornography platforms and demonstrate the potential of collaborative efforts between technology companies, law enforcement, and support organizations in combating engagement with CSAM online.

ABSTRACT When analyzing darknet child sexual abuse material (CSAM) forum data, the content of the material exchanged through the forum is highly relevant to understand trends and user preferences. The present study used 129,410 posts containing hyperlinks from six large darknet CSAM forums that were seized by the police between 2011 and 2018 to deduce the content of the uploaded CSAM. Adapting the Universal Classification Schema from INHOPE (version 2) to describe the visual content of CSAM, a sample of descriptions accompanying posted hyperlinks were manually coded to create a dictionary of indicative words. In the next step, this dictionary was used to automatically classify all posts according to the Universal Classification Schema. Acceptable interrater reliability between human and automatic classification was found for ten categories (e.g. victim sex and age), which were then used to describe the CSAM posted. Further endorsing the usefulness of automatically classifying posts using the Universal Classification Schema, the current findings concur with previous research in that we infer a higher number of female victims, a peak in victim age around 11–14 years, and the co-occurrence of male victim sex and penetrative sexual activity. Content descriptions, however, did not predict the popularity of posts.

ABSTRACT Due to their anonymous and large-scale nature, darknet forums dedicated to child sexual abuse material (CSAM) pose a major challenge to law enforcement. Therefore, prioritization on such forums is essential. The current study looks for linguistic indications of more severe behavior on a CSAM forum, focusing on hands-on abuse, expressed interest in the more extreme forms of CSAM, and participation in sharing CSAM. Using the corpus linguistic technique Keyness Analysis, we found that posts displaying more severe behavior showed more cognitive distortions such as sexualizing and objectifying children. The focus on lexical choices is a promising new direction in the investigation of this hidden community.

ABSTRACT This paper examines the obligations of online service providers (OSPs) in the European Union (EU) to prevent and combat child sexual abuse material (CSAM). Through textual analysis of key EU legal frameworks, including the Digital Services Act and the Proposal for a Regulation laying down rules to prevent and combat child sexual abuse, this study assesses the illegal materials and OSPs targeted by these texts, their core obligations, and enforcement mechanisms. Findings indicate complex, overlapping regulatory requirements across EU law, highlighting tensions between child protection, technological limitations, and potential overreach affecting freedom of expression.

This paper critically argues that child pornography is an inherently evil phenomenon demanding an urgent and foundational moral solution derived from the ethics of Emmanuel Levinas. Emerging within complex socio-political landscapes, particularly in the Philippines, this pervasive exploitation represents a profound violation that utterly destroys a child's life possibilities. Utilizing textual and critical analysis, the research first details the historical emergence and escalating prevalence of child pornography, integrating recent empirical data and socio-political factors that perpetuate its growth. It then explicates Levinas's philosophy of infinite, non-reciprocal responsibility, demonstrating how his concepts of the 'Face' and 'totalization' prove the act's inherent evil and counter critiques of his philosophy as merely idealistic. The paper questions existing legal solutions as fundamentally weak in addressing this evil alone, advocating for Levinasian ethics as a paramount moral imperative. It concludes that only by embracing this radical responsibility can a truly ethical response be forged, fostering a collective moral consciousness to restore dignity and secure the boundless future of every child.