Children's Behavioral Regulation Research Articles

Understanding the link between intimate partner violence exposure and children's self-regulation: The mediating role of parenting stress and warmth.

Intimate partner violence (IPV), affecting approximately 16.3% of U.S. households annually, has detrimental effects on children who witness it, leading to psychological distress, developmental delays, and behavioral issues. Self-regulation, a critical skill in managing attention, emotions, and behaviors essential for cognitive and social development, may be significantly impacted. The negative associations between mothers' experience of IPV and child self-regulation necessitate the examination of the underlying mechanisms, particularly during the sensitive period of early childhood. This study utilized longitudinal data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 4338) to investigate the mediating pathways linking mothers' experience of IPV (maternal victimization experiences) during infancy with children's self-regulation at age five. Results suggested that IPV exposure during infancy was longitudinally and negatively associated with children's behavioral and attentional regulation. This association was mediated by elevated parenting stress and decreased maternal warmth. These findings highlight the importance of programs aimed at reducing IPV and supporting mothers affected by IPV, considering their vital roles in nurturing healthy child self-regulation skills.

Observed child behavioral self-regulation and maternal supportive parenting are associated with dynamic physiological stress reactivity in preschoolers.

This study sought to advance our understanding of how observed child self-regulation, parenting, and their interaction were associated with children's dynamic physiological stress reactivity indexed by respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) reactivity trajectories. Participants were 85 three-year-old children (54% female) and their mothers oversampled for lower income, higher stressful life events, and higher child maltreatment risk. Child behavioral regulation, assessed as compliance and noncompliance, and maternal supportive parenting were observed during a challenging dyadic puzzle task. Results showed that child RSA exhibited quadratic change across the task on average, characterized by an expected initial decrease and subsequent recovery. Child behavioral regulation and its interaction with maternal supportive parenting were associated with interindividual differences in child RSA reactivity trajectories after controlling for child resting RSA. Children with higher compliance or lower noncompliance showed RSA decreases in response to task stressors but exhibited subsequent RSA recovery only when mothers displayed higher supportive parenting. Children with lower compliance or higher noncompliance displayed negligible RSA changes overall across the task, suggesting blunted or compromised RSA reactivity, regardless of supportive parenting levels. These findings demonstrate novel evidence that preschoolers' better behavioral regulation is related to their more adaptive physiological reactivity to stressors and that supportive parenting is needed to facilitate physiological recovery even in relatively better-regulated preschoolers. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Exploring the complex links between childhood exposure to intimate partner violence, maltreatment, and self-regulation: A three-wave cross-lagged study

BackgroundIntimate partner violence (IPV) often co-occurs with childhood maltreatment and negatively impacts children's development. While previous research has shown a direct link between these experiences and children's self-regulation, less is known about the potential unique effect and bidirectional associations between them. ObjectiveThe present study aims to investigate the bidirectional effects among maternal IPV experiences, child maltreatment, and children's behavioral self-regulation. Participants and setting4,402 participants from three waves of the longitudinal study of the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) were included in the study. MethodsCross-lagged path analyses were conducted to examine the longitudinal reciprocal relationships among IPV, child maltreatment, and children's behavioral regulation when children were 3, 5, and 9 years old. ResultsIPV exposure at ages 3 and 5 was negatively associated with levels of behavioral self-regulation at ages 5 and 9, even after accounting for physical maltreatment, psychological maltreatment, or neglect. Neglect at ages 3 and 5 was found to be associated with lower levels of behavioral self-regulation at later ages, when IPV exposure was considered in the models. Lower levels of behavioral self-regulation at age 3 were found to be linked with higher levels of psychological maltreatment, physical maltreatment, neglect, and IPV exposure at age 5. ConclusionThis study revealed bidirectional effects between maternal IPV experiences, child maltreatment, and children's behavioral self-regulation. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that exposure to IPV during early childhood significantly predicts long-term behavioral self-regulation difficulties, even after controlling for the effects of child maltreatment.

Behavioral regulation and approaches to learning: Moderators of the association between extracurricular involvement and academic readiness

Participation in organized extracurricular activities (EAs) has become increasingly common among preschool-aged children. Prior studies have shown inconsistent findings on the association between young children's involvement in EAs and their subsequent developmental outcomes. Moving beyond examining the main effects of EA participation, this study focused on whether children's behavioral regulation and approaches to learning—two important domain-general skills closely linked to learning—would moderate the association between EA participation and academic readiness. Participants included 317 Chinese preschoolers residing in Shanghai. The breadth of EA participation positively predicted children's early math skills, but only for those demonstrating relatively lower behavioral regulation or less positive approaches to learning. The findings provide support for the compensatory hypothesis that participation in EAs is more beneficial for children at greater developmental risk. Unexpectedly, the intensity of EA participation negatively predicted receptive vocabulary beyond certain thresholds among children with relatively poor behavioral regulation or approaches to learning (B = −2.272, p = .032, effect size (ES) = 0.423), but this relationship was not significant for children with better learning behaviors (B = 0.111, p = .712, ES = 0.021). According to the findings, children with worse behavioral regulation and approaches to learning were actually more vulnerable to the negative effects of intensive participation in EAs (B = −15.698, p = .022, ES = 1.797). EA participation did not predict children's Chinese word reading (ps > 0.05). The findings revealed a complex pattern of relationships between preschoolers' EA participation and academic readiness and have highlighted the importance of considering child characteristics when examining the developmental effects of EA involvement.

Associations between behavioral self-regulation and external food cue responsiveness (EFCR) in preschool-age children and evidence of modification by parenting style

Decreased behavioral regulation is hypothesized to be a risk factor for excess weight gain among children, possibly via reduced appetite-specific regulation. Little research has specifically focused on behavioral regulation and food cue responsiveness, a conditioned precursor to eating, at a young age. This study examined the association between behavioral regulation and external food cue responsiveness among preschool-age children and explored if a more structured parenting style moderated that association. Baseline data from a prospective study on media use among preschool-age children (n = 83) in Northern New England were used. Parents reported on three domains of children's behavioral regulation (attentional focusing, inhibitory control, and emotional self-regulation), the children's external food cue responsiveness (EFCR), and their parenting styles (authoritative and permissive) via validated questionnaires. Mean age among children was 4.31 (SD 0.91) years, 57% of children were male, 89% were non-Hispanic white, and 26.2% had overweight or obesity. In a series of adjusted linear regression models, lower attentional focusing (standardized β, βs = −0.35, p = 0.001), inhibitory control (βs = −0.30, p = 0.008), and emotional self-regulation (standardized beta, βs = −0.38, p < 0.001) were each significantly associated with greater EFCR. In exploratory analyses, a more structured parenting style (more authoritative or less permissive) mitigated the associations between inhibitory control and EFCR (Bonferroni-adjusted p-interaction < 0.017). Findings support that lower attentional focusing, inhibitory control, and emotional self-regulation relate to greater ECFR in preschool-age children. The association between inhibitory control and EFCR may be modified by parenting style. Further research is needed to understand if children's responsiveness to external food cues may account for reported associations between lower behavioral regulation and adiposity gain over time.

Parent beliefs and child media use: Stress and digital skills as moderators

Understanding how parent beliefs about screen media relate to children's screen media use is important for informing interventions to support healthy media use. However, studies have seldom explored relations of parent beliefs with aspects of screen media use beyond overall screentime and have not considered moderating factors. This study examined relations between parent screen media beliefs and multiple aspects of the screen media environment and investigated how those relations may vary according to parent income, stress, and digital skills, in a sample of 822 parents of young children (aged 4–8) in the United States. Positive parent beliefs about screen media predicted more reported co-use and viewing of educational content. Additionally, parent stress and, to a lesser extent, digital skills, moderated relations between beliefs and limit setting, use of screen media for child behavioral regulation, and child screentime. Implications for approaches to screen media intervention are discussed.

Elevated level of testosterone in amniotic fluid during prenatal stress and its association with development of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) like symptoms in toddlers.

To investigate the "prenatal testosterone hypothesis", according to which, high level of testosterone associated with the development of ADHD like symptoms in younger children, and to investigate whether maternal stress during pregnancy in-creases the risk of developing ADHD like symptoms in early childhood. This was a prospective study with three measurement periods: the first one during pregnancy (12 to 25 weeks of gestation); the second period involved the assessment of infants of this pregnancy at the age of 6 months and the third one the assessment of the same infants at the age of 18 months. The research plan is approved by "David Tvildiani Medical University" Research Ethics Committee. The study does not contain serious predictable risks as the expected benefit overweighs them. The study group is presented by 40 pregnant women and 40 infants of these pregnancies. Pregnant women were asked about their perceived stress levels, critical life events of the past year and pregnancy-specific stress levels using standardized questionnaires. Child's temperament and behavioral regulation were assessed using the questionnaires. Amniotic fluid was collected undergoing amniocentesis. Total testosterone in amniotic fluid was measured by radioimmunoassay. Although statistically significant relationship was identified between hyperactivity, also impulsiveness symptoms and pre-natal stress, no statistically significant relationship was identified between testosterone level and hyperactivity, also impulsivity symptoms, as well as between testosterone level and prenatal stress level. The performed study did not support the "hypothesis about prenatal testosterone", because there was a significant negative correlation between the frequency of hyperactivity symptoms and testosterone level.

Promotion and implementation effectiveness of World Health Organization's Caregiver Skills Training program in Taiwan.

The World Health Organization (WHO) developed the Caregiver Skills Training for Families of Children with Developmental Delays and Disabilities (CST) with support from Autism Speaks to address the resource gaps and worldwide needs for interventions for children with developmental disorders or delays, especially those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and their families. Evidence has indicated that parent-mediated interventions benefit both caregivers and children by strengthening caregivers' knowledge and confidence and children's social communication skills and behavioral regulation. The CST-Taiwan team began the prepilot field trial in 2017 and developed the project to serve families in various locations. This study (1) delineated the adaptations and promotion of CST-Taiwan; (2) determined the program's effectiveness in the promotional stage, in terms of caregiver and child outcomes, and (3) examined the maintenance of its effects. The materials, delivery, and facilitator training procedure of the original CST were adapted to Taiwan. The quantitative data indicated that CST-Taiwan is a promising program, it positively affected caregiver knowledge and confidence and reduced the severity of the children's autistic symptoms. The 3-month follow-up results suggested that the effects persisted. Thus, CST-Taiwan, and its promotional strategies are feasible and effective.

Early language intervention improves behavioral adjustment in school: Evidence from a cluster randomized trial

Oral language skills are critical for psychosocial development and children with language difficulties are more likely than peers to experience behavioral problems. This study investigated the effects of an oral language intervention on behavioral adjustment. We collected teacher ratings of behavioral adjustment for 1173 children taking part in a cluster randomized trial of the Nuffield Early Language Intervention (NELI) program in 193 primary schools. Ratings were collected before and immediately after the 20-week intervention. Children receiving the language program showed significantly greater improvements than the untreated control group on a latent variable reflecting behavioral adjustment (d = 0.23). However, the improvements in behavioral adjustment for children receiving language intervention were not mediated by improvements in language. We suggest that the improvements in behavioral adjustment are a consequence of the small group and individual teaching sessions in the language intervention program, which emphasizes the need to pay attention and regulate behavior. This emphasis appears to produce generalized improvements in children's behavior regulation outside of the targeted language teaching sessions.

Family Psychosocial Assets, Child Behavioral Regulation, and Obesity.

Little attention has been given to the study of early childhood factors that protect against the development of obesity and severe obesity. We investigated whether exposure to familial psychosocial assets and risks in infancy (1-15 months) and early childhood (24-54 months) and child behavioral regulation in early childhood predict longitudinal change in BMI (2 to 15 years). Participants included 1077 predominantly non-Hispanic, White, English-speaking mother-child dyads from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development dataset. Cumulative familial asset and risk indices were created using measures (eg, maternal parenting sensitivity, poverty) from 2 developmental periods (1-15 months, 24-54 months). A child behavioral regulation index was created on the basis of behavioral tasks and parent reports. Previously published BMI trajectories (nonoverweight [40th percentile], nonoverweight [70th percentile], overweight/obese, severely obese) were used as the outcome. All indices predicted membership in the overweight/obese trajectory; however, when entered into the same model, only familial assets continued to reduce the odds of membership in this trajectory. Familial assets and child behavioral regulation independently reduced the odds of membership in the severely obese trajectory. Furthermore, child behavioral regulation and familial assets buffered the negative effects of familial risk on BMI trajectory membership. Early exposure to familial assets and child behavioral regulation may have long-term protective effects on weight gain over early exposure to some familial risk factors (eg, poverty); thus, these indices may help foster obesity resilience.

Measuring children's behavioral regulation in the preschool classroom: An objective, sensor-based approach.

Children's abilities to regulate their behaviors are critical for learning and development, yet researchers lack an objective, precise method for assessing children's behavioral regulation in their everyday environments such as their classrooms. This study tested a sensor-based approach to assess preschool children's behavioral regulation objectively, precisely, and naturalistically. Children wore accelerometer devices as they engaged in center-based play in their preschool classrooms for roughly 45min (N=50 children, 48% female, mean age=4.5 years). Set to record data each second, these devices collected information about children's movement (N=140,564 observations). From these data, the authors extracted concrete behaviors hypothesized to index behavioral regulation and compared them with teacher and observer ratings of the same. Initiating movement more frequently, staying seated in activities for shorter amounts of time, and spending a greater amount of time in motion were related to lower ratings of attention and inhibitory control by teachers and by observers of classroom group time, median r=.45, p<.01. These same objectively measured behaviors showed only weak associations with children's performance on assessments of cognitive regulation, median r=.11, p=.47. The findings indicate that ambulatory accelerometers can capture movement-based indicators of children's behavioral regulation in the classroom setting and that performance on measures of cognitive regulation does not strongly predict children's behavior in the classroom. As an unobtrusive and objective measure, actigraphy may become an important tool for studying children's behavioral regulation in everyday contexts.

Stress symptoms and resilience factors in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities and their parents during the COVID-19 pandemic.

This study examined the impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in Italy by specifically looking at the psychosocial response of children/adolescents with neurodevelopmental disabilities (NDD) and their parents, and explored which factors could potentially contribute to increasing or mitigating stress-related behaviors in children/adolescents as well as their parents' stress. An online anonymous survey was designed to investigate family demographic characteristics, COVID-19 outbreak and restriction-related variables, children/adolescents' behavioral regulation problems, parental stress, and resilience. Data were collected from 1,472 parents (83.1% mothers) of 1632 NDD children/adolescents (33.7% females). Compared to pre-emergency, parents reported a significant increase in their children's behavioral regulation problems: Anxious/depressed behavior, Attention problems, and Aggressive behavior (p < .001), and they reported feeling more Overwhelmed and Burdened (p < .001) as parents but less Unfulfilled, Numbness, Devastated, and Angry (p < .001). A hierarchical stepwise regression analysis revealed that both behavioral regulation problems in NDD children/adolescents and parental stress are-at least partially-buffered by resilience factors in parents (Perception of self, Planned future, Family cohesion). Results showed that behavioral regulation problems in children/adolescents with NDD and parental stress increased. However, parental resilience can act as a protective factor, counterbalancing parental difficulties in the care of their NDD children during the emergency. Identifying risk and protective factors impacting the psychosocial response ofchildren/adolescents with NDD and their parents is essential to implement appropriate support interventions both for parents and children/adolescents with NDD during the COVID-19 pandemic. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Bidirectionality in behavioral regulation, emotional competence, and expressive vocabulary skills: Moderation by preschool social-emotional programs

This study sought to explore the bidirectional associations between children's behavioral regulation (BR), emotional competence (EC), and expressive vocabulary (EV) skills. We examined the bidirectional relations between children's BR, EC, and EV within the context of an impact study of three social-emotional learning (SEL) programs and whether the bidirectional relations are moderated by the SEL program implemented. The findings revealed bidirectionality between these developmental skills across the full sample (n = 2114). The moderation analysis suggests that Preschool PATHS and Incredible Years' programs had similar cross-lagged paths between EC and EV skills. No bidirectional relations were found among children in Tools of the Mind classrooms. The SEL programs' moderating effect speaks to the unique role that these programs can play in directly improving children's skills and supporting the dynamic nature of skills development. Therefore, preschool programs can consider implementing SEL programs to support children's language and social and emotional needs.

Enhancing diurnal cortisol regulation among young children adopted internationally: A randomized controlled trial of a parenting-based intervention.

Children who have been adopted internationally commonly experience institutional care and other forms of adversity prior to adoption that can alter the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. In particular, internationally adopted children tend to have blunted diurnal declines compared to children raised in their birth families. The Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-Up (ABC) intervention was developed to enhance young children's biological and behavioral regulation by promoting sensitive parenting. The current study used a randomized controlled trial to assess whether ABC improved the diurnal functioning of the HPA axis among 85 children who had been adopted internationally when they were between the ages of 4 and 33 months (M = 16.12). Prior to the intervention, there were no significant differences in diurnal cortisol production between children whose parents were randomly assigned to receive ABC and children whose parents were randomly assigned to receive a control intervention. After the intervention, children whose parents had received the ABC intervention exhibited steeper declines in cortisol levels throughout the day than children whose parents had received the control intervention. These results indicate that the ABC intervention is effective in enhancing a healthy pattern of diurnal HPA axis regulation for young children who have been adopted internationally.

Sleep and self-regulation in early childhood.

What is the role of sleep in children's behavioral, emotional, and cognitive regulation? This chapter considers theoretical and conceptual links between sleep and self-regulation, with special attention to sleep and self-regulation in early childhood. We selectively review the growing body of research on associations between sleep and self-regulation, mentioning some methodological issues. We also consider how child characteristics and sociocontextual factors may interact with sleep in the development of self-regulation in early childhood. We provide some relevant empirical examples from our own research.

The Role of Maternal Parenting for Children's Behavior Regulation in Environments of Risk.

This study investigates the role of maternal parenting and subjective theories for associations between environmental risk and children’s behavior regulation combining a qualitative and quantitative approach. Mothers of 113 primary school children (M = 10.06, SD = 0.86) in Germany completed questionnaires on parenting, environmental risk, and their child’s behavior regulation. To test for associations, we applied hierarchical regression models. Further, we conducted nine focus groups in settings of high and low environmental risk and used thematic analysis. Maternal warmth showed positive associations with children’s behavior regulation. Restrictive maternal control and children’s behavior regulation were related negatively. The negative association between environmental risk and children’s behavior regulation was partly explained by restrictive maternal control. When maternal warmth was added into the model on environmental risk, restrictive maternal control, and children’s behavior regulation, both maternal parenting practices lost its significant associations with children’s behavior regulation. Qualitative findings gave insights into parents’ subjective theories, suggesting adverse peer effects as possible explanation for the relation between environmental risk and children’s behavior regulation. The results are discussed in terms of their contribution to theoretical considerations on behavior regulation development in different environmental risk settings.

Linking preschoolers' parasympathetic activity to maternal early adversity and child behavior: An intergenerational perspective.

Increasing evidence suggests intergenerational effects of maternal early adversity on offspring self-regulation. Prior work has demonstrated associations between maternal adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and infant respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), a parasympathetic biomarker associated with emotional and behavioral self-regulation. The present study examined these associations and additional potential pathways including children's violence exposure and maternal psychopathology among 123 biological mother-child dyads. Families were low-income and oversampled for violence exposure; children were 3-5years old. RSA was examined during dyadic interaction using latent growth curve modeling (LGCM). On average, females exhibited greater RSA reactivity. Greater RSA withdrawal across the interaction was associated with greater child negative affect during the interaction, linking RSA reactivity to concurrent child behavior. Consistent with previous findings among infants, high maternal ACEs were associated with lower child RSA at task initiation but not with RSA reactivity across the interaction. Findings suggest that the association between high maternal ACEs and a lower set point for offspring RSA persists into the early childhood period, beyond the influence of maternal psychopathology and children's own violence exposure. These data provide further evidence for the biological embedding of maternal early adversity across generations as well as for the relevance of RSA to child behavioral regulation.

School-based intervention to address self-regulation and executive functioning in children attending primary schools in remote Australian Aboriginal communities.

Executive functioning and self-regulation influence a range of outcomes across the life course including physical and mental health, educational success, and employment. Children prenatally exposed to alcohol or early life trauma (ELT) are at higher risk of impairment of these skills and may require intervention to address self-regulation deficits. Researchers partnered with the local Aboriginal health organization and schools to develop and pilot a manualized version of the Alert Program® in the Fitzroy Valley, north Western Australia, a region with documented high rates of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder and ELT. This self-controlled cluster randomized trial evaluated the effect of an 8-week Alert Program® intervention on children’s executive functioning and self-regulation skills. Following parent or caregiver consent (referred to hereafter as parent), 271 students were enrolled in the study. This reflects a 75% participation rate and indicates the strong community support that exists for the study. Teachers from 26 primary school classrooms across eight Fitzroy Valley schools received training to deliver eight, one-hour Alert Program® lessons over eight-weeks to students. Student outcomes were measured by parent and teacher ratings of children’s behavioral, emotional, and cognitive regulation. The mean number of lessons attended by children was 4.2. Although no significant improvements to children’s executive functioning skills or behavior were detected via the teacher-rated measures as hypothesized, statistically significant improvements were noted on parent-rated measures of executive functioning and behavior. The effectiveness of future self-regulation programs may be enhanced through multimodal delivery through home, school and community based settings to maximize children’s exposure to the intervention. Despite mixed findings of effect, this study was an important first step in adapting and evaluating the Alert Program® for use in remote Australian Aboriginal community schools, where access to self-regulation interventions is limited.

Maternal socialization of child emotion and adolescent adjustment: Indirect effects through emotion regulation.

A fundamental question in developmental science is how parental emotion socialization processes are associated with children's subsequent adaptation. Few extant studies have examined this question across multiple developmental periods and levels of analysis. Here, we tested whether mothers' supportive and nonsupportive reactions to their 5-year-old children's negative emotions were associated with teacher and adolescent self-reported adjustment at age 15 via children's physiological and behavioral emotion regulation at age 10 (N = 404). Results showed that maternal supportive reactions to their children's negative emotions were associated with children's greater emotion regulation in a laboratory task and also a composite of mother and teacher reports of emotion regulation at age 10. Maternal nonsupportive reactions to their children's negative emotions were uncorrelated with supportive reactions, but were associated with poorer child physiological regulation and also poorer mother- and teacher-reported emotion regulation at age 10. In turn, better physiological regulation at age 10 was associated with more adolescent-reported social competence at age 15. Furthermore, teacher and mother reports of emotion regulation at age 10 were associated with increased adolescent adjustment across all domains. Mediational effects from nonsupportive and supportive reactions to adolescent adjustment tested via bootstrapping were significant. Our findings suggest that mothers' reactions to their children's negative emotions in early childhood may play a role in their children's ability to regulate their arousal both physiologically and behaviorally in middle childhood, which in turn may play a role in their ability to manage their emotions and behaviors and to navigate increasingly complex social contexts in adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Fathers’ perceived co-parenting and children's academic readiness among Chinese preschoolers: Longitudinal pathways through parenting and behavioral regulation

Co-parenting quality has frequently been linked to young children's social–emotional functioning, but limited research has focused on the relationship between co-parenting and children's early academic skills, or the underlying mechanisms through which co-parenting influences children's development. Using data collected from urban China, the present study examined how fathers’ perceptions of co-parenting quality was related to their preschool-aged children's academic readiness (i.e., receptive vocabulary, reading, early math; N = 336), and whether father's parenting practices and children's behavioral regulation mediated the link between co-parenting quality and child outcomes. Findings suggested that the relation between co-parenting quality and children's academic readiness was mediated by children's behavioral regulation. However, fathers’ parenting practices were not related to children's academic readiness, nor did fathers’ parenting practices mediate the relations between co-parenting and child outcomes. The present findings were consistent between boys and girls. That is, the mediating process did not differ as a function of child gender. The study highlights the importance of fostering a quality co-parenting relationship to better support children's development of behavioral regulation and academic readiness.