Wild birds of the orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes represent a natural reservoir of low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses (family Orthomyxoviridae). Wild geese (order Anseriformes) relating to waterfowls undertake extensive migration flights reaching thousands of kilometers. Isolation of the avian influenza virus (AIV) from wild geese is quite low or absent. The aims of this study are to monitor the AIV in different wild goose species, nesting on Russian territory and the Tibet Plateau and to analyze the derived data for the purpose of determining the role of these wild bird species in spreading pathogens. In our study 3245 samples from nine wild goose species in nine regions of Russia and on the territory of the Tibet Plateau (the Xizang Autonomous Region) were tested and no AIV were detected. Our study shows the non-essential role of wild geese in the spread of the AIV over long distances and reaches the conclusion that geese are probably not natural reservoirs for the primary viruses. However, further inquiry of AIV in wild goose populations is required. Studies of wild geese and AIV ecology will allow us to obtain more information about pathogen-host relationships and to make arrangements for the maintenance of wild goose populations.

Resumen: Se presenta la propuesta de nuevas categorías de permanencia para 14 especies del orden Charadriifor- mes en Cuba, basada en información obtenida a partir del desarrollo de estudios de campo entre los años 1989 y 2009, el análisis de los registros de recuperación en el país de aves migratorias anilladas en América del Norte, y la revisión del material de colecciones zoológicas depositadas en instituciones científicas cubanas. Las especies figu- ran: Charadrius nivosus, C. wilsonia, Haematopus palliatus, Recurvirostra americana, Gallinago delicata, Larus philadelphia, Anous stolidus, Onychoprion fuscatus, Sternulla antillarum, Gelochelidon nilotica, Hydroprogne cas- pia, Sterna dougallii, S. hirundo, y Thalasseus sandvicensis. Palabras clave: Categoría de permanencia, Charadriiformes, Cuba Abstract: New status of occurance for species of the order Charadriiformes in Cuba- We propose new categories for the status of occurrence for 14 species of the order Charadriiformes in Cuba, based on results obtained from ornithological studies between 1989–2009, the analysis of recoveries of migratory birds banded in North America, and a review of specimens in zoological collections in Cuban scientific institutions. The species include: Snowy Plover (Charadrius nivosus), Wilson’s Plover (C. wilsonia), American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus), American Avocet (Recurvirostra americana), Wilson’s Snipe (Gallinago delicata), Bonaparte’s Gull (Chroicocephalus philadelphia), Brown Noddy (Anous stolidus), Sooty Tern (Onychoprion fuscatus), Least Tern (Sternulla antillarum), Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon nilotica), Caspian Tern (Hydroprogne caspia), Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii), Common Tern (S. hirundo), and Sandwich Tern (Thalasseus sandvicensis). Keywords: categories for status of occurrence, Charadriiformes, Cuba Résumé: Nouveau statut de presence pour des especes de l’ordre Charadriiformes a Cuba- Nous proposons de nouvelles catégories pour le statut de présence de 14 espèces des Charadriiformes à Cuba, selon des résultats obtenus au travers d’études ornithologiques de 1989 à 2009, de l’analyse des contrôles d’oiseaux mi- grateurs bagués en Amérique du Nord et d’une étude des spécimens des collections zoologiques des institutions scientifiques cubaines. Les espèces incluent : Pluvier neigeux (Charadrius nivosus), Pluvier de Wilson (C. wilsonia), Huîtrier d’Amérique (Haematopus palliatus), Avocette d’Amérique (Recurvirostra americana), Bécassine de Wil- son (Gallinago delicata), Mouette de Bonaparte (Chroicocephalus philadelphia), Noddi brun (Anous stolidus), Sterne fuligineuse (Onychoprion fuscatus), Petite Sterne (Sternulla antillarum), Sterne hansel (Gelochelidon nilotica), Sterne caspienne (Hydroprogne caspia), Sterne de Dougall (Sterna dougallii), Sterne pierregarin (S. hirundo) et Sterne caugek (Thalasseus sandvicensis). Mots clés: Charadriiformes, Cuba, statut de présence

Wild birds in the Orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes are the natural reservoirs for avian influenza (AI) viruses. Although they are often infected with multiple AI viruses, the significance and extent of acquired immunity in these populations is not understood. Pre-existing immunity to AI virus has been shown to modulate the outcome of a highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus infection in multiple domestic avian species, but few studies have addressed this effect in wild birds. In this study, the effect of pre-exposure to homosubtypic (homologous hemagglutinin) and heterosubtypic (heterologous hemagglutinin) low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses on the outcome of a H5N1 HPAI virus infection in wood ducks (Aix sponsa) was evaluated. Pre-exposure of wood ducks to different LPAI viruses did not prevent infection with H5N1 HPAI virus, but did increase survival associated with H5N1 HPAI virus infection. The magnitude of this effect on the outcome of the H5N1 HPAI virus infection varied between different LPAI viruses, and was associated both with efficiency of LPAI viral replication in wood ducks and the development of a detectable humoral immune response. These observations suggest that in naturally occurring outbreaks of H5N1 HPAI, birds with pre-existing immunity to homologous hemagglutinin or neuraminidase subtypes of AI virus may either survive H5N1 HPAI virus infection or live longer than naïve birds and, consequently, could pose a greater risk for contributing to viral transmission and dissemination. The mechanisms responsible for this protection and/or the duration of this immunity remain unknown. The results of this study are important for surveillance efforts and help clarify epidemiological data from outbreaks of H5N1 HPAI virus in wild bird populations.

Proposals for genetic thresholds for species delimitation assume that simple genetic data sets (e.g. mitochondrial sequence data) are correlated with speciation; i.e. such data sets accurately reflect organismal lineage divergence. We used taxonomically stratified phenotypic levels of differentiation (populations, subspecies and species) among nine avian lineages using paired, trans-Beringian samples from three lineages each in three orders (Anseriformes, Charadriiformes, and Passeriformes) to test this assumption. Using mitochondrial DNA sequence data and nuclear genomic data (amplified fragment length polymorphisms), we found a lack of concordance between these two genomes in their respective estimates of divergence and little or no relationship between phenotype (taxonomic relatedness) and genetic differentiation between taxon pairs. There are several possible reasons for the discord observed (e.g. selection on one of the genomes or perhaps lineage sorting), but the implications are that genetic estimates of lineage divergence may not be correlated with estimates from other parts of the genome, are not well correlated with the speciation process and are thus not reliable indicators of species limits.

Bird skin has a number of specific properties. The uropygial gland is a significant skin gland in many species. The secretion of this gland is particularly necessary for maintaining physical characteristics, including feather waterproofing. In some bird species this gland secretion has a repellent effect against potential mammalian predators; in other species it affects the final colour of feathers. In the investigated species of storks (genus Ciconia), secretions of the uropygial gland have been found to be mixtures of monoester waxes, diester waxes, triester waxes and triglycerides. Wax diesters were also found in the red knot Calidris canutus (order Charadriiformes). Lipid substances in the secretions of the rock dove (Columba livia) consist mainly of unsaturated fatty acids (59% secretion; mostly oleic acid – 37%, linoleic acid – 6% and arachidonic acid – 7%). Free fatty acids, which are decomposition products of epidermal lipids, can regulate microbial colonization of skin (e.g., by modification of pH); a shift of these values was detected in poultry in battery husbandry. Analysis of fatty acids from lipids shows the influence of age, diet, and also the relationship to feather pecking – the individual composition affects the smell and taste, and thus the attractiveness to other individuals. The antibacterial activity of skin secretions has been demonstrated. Secretions of the hoopoe (Upupa epops) have besides the function of maintenance of physical properties of feathers also a repellent effect on parasites and predators. Its active substance is a peptide bacteriocin, produced by strains of Enterococcus faecalis. This substance is active against a number of both G + and G-bacteria and helps to sustain the nest hygiene, it is also effective against Bacillus licheniformis that produces keratin-decompositing enzymes. A similar antimicrobial activity of uropygial secretion against bacteria which degrade feathers was demonstrated in the wild house finch Carpodacus mexicanus. Changes in skin microflora have been demonstrated in parrots kept for breeding in comparison with those living in the wild, which may have significance for husbandry practices and veterinary care. Passerines of the genus Pitohui and Ifrita living in New Guinea store in their skin and feather batrachotoxins, which they receive from food - beetles of the genus Choresine. These toxins are active against parasites (e.g. lice – Phthiraptera). In contrast, substances that act as potential attractants for hematophagous insects (e.g. mosquitoes of genus Culex) were found in the skin of chickens. Alcohols, ketones and diones were detected in these substances. The composition of uropygial gland secretions may be a guide in assessing the relatedness of bird species. Feather waxes can be analyzed also from old museum specimens. Lipid-enriched organelles, multigranular bodies in the epidermis mean that zebra finches (Taeniopygia castanotis) are facultatively waterproof, which appears to have a function in protecting the organism against dehydrating when water is unavailable.

Wild aquatic birds in the Orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes are the main reservoir hosts perpetuating the genetic pool of all influenza A viruses, including pandemic viruses. High viral loads in feces of infected birds permit a fecal-oral route of transmission. Numerous studies have reported the isolation of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) from surface water at aquatic bird habitats. These isolations indicate aquatic environments have an important role in the transmission of AIV among wild aquatic birds. However, the progressive dilution of infectious feces in water could decrease the likelihood of virus/host interactions. To evaluate whether alternate mechanisms facilitate AIV transmission in aquatic bird populations, we investigated whether the preen oil gland secretions by which all aquatic birds make their feathers waterproof could support a natural mechanism that concentrates AIVs from water onto birds' bodies, thus, representing a possible source of infection by preening activity. We consistently detected both viral RNA and infectious AIVs on swabs of preened feathers of 345 wild mallards by using reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and virus-isolation (VI) assays. Additionally, in two laboratory experiments using a quantitative real-time (qR) RT-PCR assay, we demonstrated that feather samples (n = 5) and cotton swabs (n = 24) experimentally impregnated with preen oil, when soaked in AIV-contaminated waters, attracted and concentrated AIVs on their surfaces. The data presented herein provide information that expands our understanding of AIV ecology in the wild bird reservoir system.

BackgroundAvian influenza virus (AIV) is an important public health issue because pandemic influenza viruses in people have contained genes from viruses that infect birds. The H5 and H7 AIV subtypes have periodically mutated from low pathogenicity to high pathogenicity form. Analysis of the geographic distribution of AIV can identify areas where reassortment events might occur and how high pathogenicity influenza might travel if it enters wild bird populations in the US. Modelling the number of AIV cases is important because the rate of co-infection with multiple AIV subtypes increases with the number of cases and co-infection is the source of reassortment events that give rise to new strains of influenza, which occurred before the 1968 pandemic. Aquatic birds in the orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes have been recognized as reservoirs of AIV since the 1970s. However, little is known about influenza prevalence in terrestrial birds in the order Passeriformes. Since passerines share the same habitat as poultry, they may be more effective transmitters of the disease to humans than aquatic birds. We analyze 152 passerine species including the American Robin (Turdus migratorius) and Swainson's Thrush (Catharus ustulatus).MethodsWe formulate a regression model to predict AIV cases throughout the US at the county scale as a function of 12 environmental variables, sampling effort, and proximity to other counties with influenza outbreaks. Our analysis did not distinguish between types of influenza, including low or highly pathogenic forms.ResultsAnalysis of 13,046 cloacal samples collected from 225 bird species in 41 US states between 2005 and 2008 indicates that the average prevalence of influenza in passerines is greater than the prevalence in eight other avian orders. Our regression model identifies the Great Plains and the Pacific Northwest as high-risk areas for AIV. Highly significant predictors of AIV include the amount of harvested cropland and the first day of the year when a county is snow free.ConclusionsAlthough the prevalence of influenza in waterfowl has long been appreciated, we show that 22 species of song birds and perching birds (order Passeriformes) are influenza reservoirs in the contiguous US.

Kaithal District is comprised of 2317 Km² Sq. Km area having six blocks Viz.:Kaithal, Kalayat, Pundri, Rajound, Ghula and Siwan located at a distance of 150 Kms from New Delhi toward North West. Its geographical position lies between 29° 48' 0 N latitude and between 76° 22' 60 E longitude.The present studies were carried between 2005-2008 with the help of Zenith Camera and telelens. In all, 63 species of Wetland birds belonging to 10 Orders, 38 genera and 16 families were observed in various village ponds in Kaithal District. Out of 63 species of wetland birds, 31 are winter migratory, 9 local migratory, 3 summers migratory and 20 species are resident birds. Considering IUCN categories, Black Ibis (Pseudibis papillosa) which belongs to Biome Restricted Species (BRS) was observed in three blocks viz. Kaithal, Pundri and Rajound of Kaithal district. In addition, Spotted Greenshank (Tringa guttifer) which has been placed in endangered category of IUCN was observed as single individual. But Black Ibis (Pseudibis papillosa) was observed in a group of three to seven. Northern Shoveller (Anas clypeata), which is reportedly coming from Central Russia and Caspian Siberia has been observed in very large groups of 200-250 and virtually spotted in each and every pond in Northern Haryana. Similarly, Northern Pintail (Anas acuta), Common Teal (Anas crecca), Common Pochard (Aythya ferina), Spot-billed Duck (Anas poecilorhyncha), Lesser-whistling Teal (Dendrocygna javanica) were also seen in relatively large groups. Common Pochard (Aythya ferina) is always observed in pure groups floating in the centre of relatively big ponds. In contrast, Gadwall (Anas strepera), Northern Shoveller (Anas clypeata), Northern Pintail (Anas acuta) and Common Teal (Anas crecca), share close proximity with each other in water and are found in mixed groups. Northern Shoveller (Anas clypeata), Bar- headed Goose (Anser indicus) and Northern Pintail (Anas acuta) stay between Octobers to April. Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) stays in winter for shortest period between December and January. Maximum wetland birds observed in Kaithal District belong to Order Charadriiformes and to family Anatidae of Order Anseriformes. Spotted Greenshank (Tringa guttifer) is the peculiar to Pundri block only, in Kaithal District.

There are nine serotypes of avian paramyxovirus (APMV), including APMV-1, or Newcastle disease virus. Although free-flying ducks and geese have been extensively monitored for APMV, limited information is available for species in the order Charadriiformes. From 2000 to 2005 we tested cloacal swabs from 9,128 shorebirds and gulls (33 species, five families) captured in 10 states within the USA and in three countries in the Caribbean and South America. Avian paramyxoviruses were isolated from 60 (0.7%) samples by inoculation of embryonating chicken eggs; isolates only included APMV-1 and APMV-2. Two isolates (APMV-2) were made from gulls and 58 isolates (APMV-1 [41 isolates] and APMV-2 [17 isolates]) were made from shorebirds. All of the positive shorebirds were sampled at Delaware Bay (Delaware and New Jersey) and 45 (78%) of these isolates came from Ruddy Turnstones (Arenaria interpres). The APMV-1 infection rate was higher among Ruddy Turnstones compared with other shorebird species and varied by year. Avian paramyxovirus-2 was isolated from two of 394 (0.5%) Ruddy Turnstones at Delaware Bay in 2001 and from 13 of 735 (1.8%) Ruddy Turnstones during 2002. For both APMV-1 and APMV-2, infection rates were higher among Ruddy Turnstones sampled on the south shore of Delaware Bay compared to north shore populations. This spatial variation may be related to local movements of Ruddy Turnstones within this ecosystem. The higher prevalence of APMV in Ruddy Turnstones mirrors results observed for avian influenza viruses in shorebirds and may suggest similar modes of transmission.

The rate at which a young bird grows is highly diverse across taxa. We investigated the influences of ecological variables on growth rates of shorebirds, gulls and their allies (order Charadriiformes) using comparative analyses of 68 species. We investigated three hypotheses: (1) exposure to cold temperatures results in reduced growth rate due to the increased energy expenditure required for thermoregulation, (2) fast growth rates allow offspring to complete development in habitats with short periods of fair ecological conditions, and (3) parental feeding allows the offspring to grow faster than self‐feeding offspring. Charadriiform species are suitable for testing these hypotheses, because they breed in diverse environmental conditions that include Arctic and Antarctic habitats, temperate zones and tropics, and in some species the offspring feed themselves (precocial) whereas in others they are fed by the parents (semi‐precocial). First, we tested the influence of ambient temperature on growth rate and we found that species breeding in cold habitats had faster growth rates than species breeding in warm temperatures. The relationship between growth rate and ambient temperature was not significantly different between precocial and semi‐precocial offspring. Second, we tested the influence of the length of the breeding season on growth rate, and we found that species with shorter breeding seasons had faster growth rates than species with longer breeding seasons. Finally, we show that precocial offspring grew slower than semi‐precocial offspring, and this relationship remains significant when the influences of ambient temperature and breeding season length are statistically controlled. In conclusion, our work, using phylogenetically corrected models, confirms that ambient environment and developmental mode of young together influence the growth of Charadriiform chicks, and their effects are additive.

Abstract Wetlands are ecosystems where a high level of biodiversity is found. Being a suitable medium for the nourishment, reproduction, and accommodation of many species of living creatures, wetlands are museums of natural riches, not only of the country where they are located but also of the whole world. Kavak Delta, one of the most important wetlands of Turkey, with coastal dunes and halophilic vegetation as well as being on the north–south bird migration route, provides not only opportunities for coastal tourism but also offers substantial potential for ecotourism. During observations, bird species, especially of the orders Anseriformes, Falconiformes, and Charadriiformes, were identified. Some 14 orders, 39 families, and 124 bird species were spotted in the delta. Also, dune and halophilic plants constitute a rich flora in the delta. In this study, the potential for ecotourism and opportunities for coastal tourism in the area are outlined. Within this context, besides ecotourism activities, such as b...

In 2006 the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Interior, and cooperating state fish and wildlife agencies began surveillance for high-pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus in wild birds in the Pacific Flyway of the United States. This surveillance effort was highly integrated in California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and western Montana, with collection of samples coordinated with state agencies. Sampling focused on live wild birds, hunter-killed waterfowl during state hunting seasons, and wild bird mortality events. Of 20,888 samples collected, 18,139 were from order Anseriformes (waterfowl) and 2010 were from order Charadriiformes (shorebirds), representing the two groups of birds regarded to be the primary reservoirs of avian influenza viruses. Although 83 birds were positive by H5 real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR), no HPAI H5N1 virus was found. Thirty-two virus isolates were obtained from the H5-positive samples, including low-pathogenicity H5 viruses identified as H5N2, H5N3, and H5N9.

Avian influenza virus in water: Infectivity is dependent on pH, salinity and temperature

Birds in the order Charadriiformes were sampled at multiple sites in the eastern half of the continental USA, as well as at Argentina, Chile, and Bermuda, during 1999-2005, and tested for avian influenza virus (AIV). Of more than 9,400 birds sampled, AIV virus was isolated from 290 birds. Although Ruddy Turnstones (Arenaria interpres) comprised just 25% of birds sampled, they accounted for 87% of isolates. Only eight AIV isolations were made from birds at four locations outside of the Delaware Bay, USA, region; six of these were from gulls (Laridae). At Delaware Bay, AIV isolations were predominated by hemagglutinin (HA) subtype H10, but subtype diversity varied each year. These results suggest that AIV infection among shorebirds (Scolopacidae) may be localized, species specific, and highly variable in relation to AIV subtype diversity.

West Nile Virus in Birds, Argentina

Models of ecological speciation predict that certain types of habitat should be more conducive to species diversification than others. In this study, I test this hypothesis in waders of the sub-order Charadrii using the number of morphological sub-species per species as an index of diversity. I classified all members of this clade as spending the non-breeding season either coastally or inland and argue that these represent fundamentally different environments. Coastal mudflats are characterised by high predictability and patchy worldwide distribution, whilst inland wetlands are widespread but unpredictable. The results show that migratory species that winter coastally are sub-divided into more sub-species than those that winter inland. This was not the case for non-migratory species. I argue that coastal environments select for more rigid migratory pathways, whilst inland wetlands favour more flexible movement patterns. Population sub-division could then result from the passive segregation of breeding sites or from the active selection for assortative mating of ecomorphs.

Wild aquatic birds are considered to be the natural reservoir for influenza A viruses, and previous studies have focused mainly on species in the orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes. In this study, we surveyed a larger spectrum of potential hosts belonging to 10 avian orders. Cloacal swabs (n=1,044) from 72 free-living bird species, were analysed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction for the presence of avian influenza virus. Only two Mediterranean Gulls (Larus melanocephalus) tested positive; one of these viruses was identified as an H9N2 subtype. The absence of infection among passerine birds supports the idea that the prevalence of avian influenza virus infection in terrestrial species is low.

Following the avian influenza (AI) epidemics occurring in different areas of the world, a surveillance program funded by the Italian Ministry of Health was implemented. In the framework of this program, an investigation of wild birds was carried out to assess the circulation of AI viruses in their natural reservoir. More than 3000 samples, mainly cloacal swabs, were collected from migratory wild birds belonging to the orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes. Samples were screened by means of a real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR), then processed for attempted virus isolation in embryonated fowl's specific pathogen-free eggs. Approximately 5% of the samples were positive for type A influenza viruses by RRT-PCR, and from 14 of those samples AI viruses were isolated and fully characterized. The isolates, belonging to 8 different avian influenza virus subtype combinations (H10N4, H1N1, H4N6, H7N7, H7N4, H5N1, H5N2, and H5N3), were obtained from migratory Anseriformes.

Abstract Habitat restoration can partially compensate for the extensive loss of coastal wetlands, but creation of functional habitat and assessment of restoration success remain challenging tasks. To evaluate wintering shorebird use of restored coastal wetlands, we quantified shorebird assemblages and behavior of selected focal species at five restored sites and paired reference sites in Mugu Lagoon, southern California, United States. The Shannon–Wiener index of species diversity (for all birds in order Charadriiformes) was higher in the restored than in the reference portion of three of the five sites, higher in the reference portion of a fourth site, and similar between reference and restored areas of the fifth site. Species diversity was lower in sites closer to man‐made structures. The four most abundant species groups across the five sites were selected for detailed analysis of site use and behavior: Willets (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus), Marbled Godwits (Limosa fedoa), Dowitchers (Limnodromus spp.), and Sandpipers (Calidris spp.) (Western, Least, and Dunlin). Each focal species group exhibited distinct site preferences, and densities in restored sites were often as high or higher than in reference sites. Willets and Dowitchers preferred habitats with more extensive tidal flats, a characteristic of restored sites. Godwits and Sandpipers preferred heterogeneous habitats with a mix of water and tidal flats. Most birds were engaged in feeding activities during the ebb tides surveyed, and there were no apparent differences in behavior between reference and restored sites. Though not all restored sites were used equally by all species, the creation of multiple restored sites with varied habitat characteristics attracted a diverse assemblage of shorebirds and may have contributed to the integrity of the regional wetland landscape.

Rates of food intake in animals consuming abundant prey can be constrained by the rates of digestion or excretion of ingested substances, such as salt, particularly so in the animals that regularly migrate between freshwater and saltwater environments. We tested this hypothesis in a long‐distance migrant shorebird, the eastern curlew Numenius madagascariensis (suborder Charadrii), foraging on intertidal decapods in eastern Australia. We predicted that if food intake rates are constrained osmotically, individuals with access to freshwater and less saline prey (FW group) would have higher rates of food and water intake than individuals with seawater‐only access (SW group). Food intake rates did not differ between the FW and SW groups (0.14 g ash‐free dry mass min−1), nor did the water influx rates (0.75 g min−1). Salt intake rates were lower at FW sites (19.3 versus 23.3 mg NaCl min−1) and overall they were similar to those of marine birds. Food intake rate in the eastern curlew appeared limited by digestive rather than by osmoregulatory capacity.