Characteristics Of Springs Research Articles

Hydrochemical Characteristics of the Major Springs in the Maqarin Dam Site on the Yarmouk River (Northern Jordan)

Most water development schemes in Jordan have paid limited attention to the chemistry of water and its implication on water origin, movement, and evolution. Various aspects of water quality have also been ignored in recent projects. Chemical characteristics of groundwater in a major catchment area adjacent to the Maqarin dam in northern Jordan have been investigated. Because water from this area is an intended major source of water for Jordan, it is vital to understand the nature of the chemistry of the springs in the area, as well as the potential water-rock interaction. The study area is underlain by sedimentary rocks of Upper Cretaceous age. This study evaluates the water quality of 12 springs from aquifers within the bituminous marl formation and chalky limestone formation (aquifers B-3 and B-4, respectively) situated in the surrounding area of the Maqarin dam site on the Yarmouk river. Analyses show that the water of the springs are characterized as alkaline earth-biocarbonate chemical type, consistent with the calcareous lithology of the aquifers. Constituents contained in all water from springs sampled are within or below World Health Organization (WHO) standards set for domestic purposes.

Development of a multi-body simulation model of a Winston Cup valvetrain to study valve bounce

Valvetrain dynamics is an important factor in the development of engines that operate at high rotational speeds. Valve bounce, which occurs at different speeds in the operating range of the engine, can severely limit the ability of the engine to develop peak power owing to the inability of the valves to seal appropriately. The objective of the work reported in this paper is to develop a model of a Winston Cup (WC) engine valvetrain that can predict the dynamics of the valvetrain at high speed. This model can then be used to develop a more complete understanding of the valvetrain motion and to aid effective design of valvetrains. The model is developed in the ADAMS environment. It contains a flexible pushrod, a flexible rocker arm and lift-off among all components, the mass of the valve springs, and a fluctuating rocker arm ratio. Also included in the model is damping in the valve spring and friction at the rocker arm pivot. Finite element analyses (FEAs) were conducted in order to obtain accurate data for pushrod and rocker arm stiffnesses, and to obtain the frequency response characteristics of the valve springs. The model data represent an actual engine used in WC racing. The model is run at different speeds to determine its dynamic characteristics and to verify its response with models developed previously by other researchers. Valve bounce predictions from the simulation model are compared with measured data from a Spintron test of an identical valvetrain configuration. The results indicate that the model accurately predicts the speeds of maximum valve bounce.

Load Characteristics of Ultrasonic Motors with a Longitudinal-Torsional Converter and Various Nonlinear Springs for Inducing Static Pressure

The vibration and load characteristics of ultrasonic motors that use a longitudinal-torsional vibration converter and various nonlinear springs were studied. Ultrasonic motors have one-dimensional longitudinal-torsional converters with a diagonally slitted part. The vibration characteristics were markedly improved using nonlinear springs for inducing static pressure on the driving surface. Using a nonlinear static pressure source, the frictional driving force of a rotor increases during the forward duty cycle, and that during the opposite retracting cycle decreases, resulting in small frictional loss. The nonlinear static and dynamic characteristics of various material springs were measured. The nonlinear static pressure source may be applied to any types of ultrasonic motor.

Chemistry and discharge characteristics of Odukpani junction springs, Calabar Flank, south-eastern Nigeria

A 6-month study spanning the rainy and dry seasons was conducted on Odukpani Junction springs (Nigeria) to assess the variation in discharge and physico-chemical parameters. The study also evaluated the impact of geology and indiscriminate disposal of wastes on spring water quality. The results indicate a poor correlation between discharge (Q) and amount of rainfall (R). This is attributed to the distance of the meteorological station and the sampled localities, thus eliminating micro rainfall data. However, Q increased with an increase in R. The variation of ions with time was not large; however, concentrations were higher during the rainy season in most cases. Three major chemical facies (Ca–HCO3, Ca–SO4, K–HCO3) identified show major relationship with lithology. Multiple regression equations have been developed to predict the total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC) and discharge (Q). The level of nitrate is high (9–43 mg/l) compared with the World Health Organisation (WHO) limits of 10.0 mg/l. This is attributed to the indiscriminate dumping of domestic, human and animal wastes. Other parameters determined are within the limits acceptable for potable water by the Nigerian Federal Environmental Protection Agency (NFEPA) and WHO.

Geochemical survey of medium temperature geothermal resources from the Baja California Peninsula and Sonora, México

Waters from hot springs and deep wells from Cerritos in the northern Baja California Peninsula and deep wells from the Riı́to zone (Sonora state) were studied in order to classify medium temperature geothermal resources to be exploited in NW-Mexico. Geochemical characteristics of San Felipe and Punta Estrella coastal springs indicate the mixing of seawater and meteoric components with secondary leaching of evaporates. Reservoir temperatures for both zones were estimated up to 225°C. Mixing of high portions of seawater (>80 wt%) with local waters could be the origin for the Puertecitos coastal spring, with a reservoir temperature estimation of 195°C. The El Coloradito coastal spring is composed of meteoric water with a reservoir temperature of 127°C. The formation of thermal manifestations along the Baja California coast could be related to the heating up of convecting seawater along extensional tectonic structures, as observed for submarine hydrothermal vents at the Gulf of California and along the East Pacific Rise. Volcanic steam-heated waters with a reservoir temperature of 135°C were found at the Valle Chico inland springs from the Baja California Peninsula. Deep fluids from the Riı́to zone originated by evaporation of infiltrated waters with similar characteristics to those located in the Mexicali Valley. Reservoir temperature of 192 and 126°C are estimated for the Riı́to deep wells ER-1B (ER) and R-1, respectively. The Riı́to artesian wells M-1, M-2 and M-4 indicate reservoir temperatures from 109 to 118°C. Isotopic data define the artesian wells as typical surface water or shallow groundwater from the Mexicali Valley. The Cerritos deep fluids of the Mexicali Valley show a close chemical and isotopic relationship to the adjacent Cerro Prieto reservoir fluids suggesting a similar origin and a possible connection of both aquifer systems. Conductive cooling of Cerro Prieto discharge fluids could originate the cooler Cerritos system (130°C). According to the reservoir temperature estimations, electricity could be generated at San Felipe, Punta Estrella and Riı́to zones using conventional or binary cycle while the direct application of fluids in heat pumps and industrial processes is feasible for the other sites.

Free Vibration Characteristics of Composite Barrel and Hyperboloidal Coil Springs

The first six resonance frequencies of unidirectional composite noncylindrical helical springs (barrel and hyperboloidal types) made of carbon-epoxy (T300/N5208) material are determined theoretically based on the transfer matrix method. The rotary inertia, shear, and axial deformation effects are considered with the first-order shear deformation theory. The overall transfer matrix is obtained by integrating the 12 scalar ordinary differential equations with variable coefficients governing the free-vibration behavior of noncylindrical helical springs made of an anisotropic material. Numerical results are verified with the reported values for isotropic noncylindrical helices. A parametric study is performed to investigate the effects of the number of active coils (n = 5-10), the helix pitch angle ( f = 5° and 25°), the ratio of the minimum to maximum cylinder radii ( R min/ R max = 0.1 and 0.9), and the ratio of the maximum cylinder diameter to the wire diameter ( D max/ d = 5 and 15) on the free-vibration frequencies of constant-pitch composite barrel and hyperboloidal helical springs with circular sections and fixed-fixed ends.

Free Vibration Characteristics of Composite Barrel and Hyperboloidal Coil Springs

The first six resonance frequencies of unidirectional composite noncylindrical helical springs (barrel and hyperboloidal types) made of carbon-epoxy (T300/N5208) material are determined theoretically based on the transfer matrix method. The rotary inertia, shear, and axial deformation effects are considered with the first-order shear deformation theory. The overall transfer matrix is obtained by integrating the 12 scalar ordinary differential equations with variable coefficients governing the free-vibration behavior of noncylindrical helical springs made of an anisotropic material. Numerical results are verified with the reported values for isotropic noncylindrical helices. A parametric study is performed to investigate the effects of the number of active coils (n = 5-10), the helix pitch angle ( f = 5° and 25°), the ratio of the minimum to maximum cylinder radii ( R min/ R max = 0.1 and 0.9), and the ratio of the maximum cylinder diameter to the wire diameter ( D max/ d = 5 and 15) on the free-vibration frequencies of constant-pitch composite barrel and hyperboloidal helical springs with circular sections and fixed-fixed ends.

Physico-chemical and biological characteristics of thermal springs in Köyceğiz and Dalaman basins in south-western Turkey and recommendations for their protection

Many hydrogeological researches exist on the thermal springs of Turkey but limnological researches are very deficient. The results of the limnological research of the thermal springs in the basin of the meromictic lake Köyceğiz and Dalaman Basin are as follows; the thermal springs are of euthermal or chliarothermal types. In the thermal springs thermotolerant diatoms constituted the major plankton flora. Recommendations for the protection of thermal springs are given according to the results of this research.

Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Saline Springs: Sea of Galilee, Israel

Spatial and temporal characteristics of the saline springs that emerge along the western shore of the Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret) are analyzed. Three groups of onshore springs (Tiberias, Fuliya, and Tabgha) and two groups of offshore springs (Barbutim and Maagan), contribute saline water to the lake with concentrations in the range of 300 to 18,000 mg Cl/L, depending on location and season. It is well accepted that water emerging from these springs is a mixture of two endmembers: deep-seated saline ground water and shallow, fresh circulating ground water. Temporal trends of discharge rates and of chloride (representing the deep saline aquifer) and nitrate (representing the shallow fresh water aquifer) concentrations within each group of springs are presented. Results show the proportions of the two water bodies while mixing are time dependent. Discharge and concentration peaks in Tabgha springs precede those in Fuliya and Tiberias springs by approximately two months. An analytical solution shows that in Tabgha, variations of these parameters are mainly controlled by recharge variations in the Galilee, and follow an exponential function. In Fuliya and Tiberias, variations of these parameters are mainly dependent on lake level, and follow a sine-cosine function. The different patterns are attributed to different hydraulic properties of the discharge area.

Study on dynamic characteristic analysis of air spring with auxiliary chamber

The characteristics of air springs, such as the effects of bellows and those of heat transfer on spring constant and damping factor, have been studied. However, auxiliary chambers and pipes are required in addition to air springs, to vary spring constant in the case of spring rate change by electronically controlled air suspension systems of a vehicle. Few reports have dealt with the effects of auxiliary chambers and pipes. In our study, the relation between vibration frequency and spring reaction has been investigated to clarify the effects of pipes on dynamic spring constant. Our proposed model has proved effective in understanding the phenomena.

Force characteristics of nickel-titanium tension coil springs

Nickel-titanium closed coil springs are commonly used for space closure. The springs possess a high resistance to permanent deformation and the potential for relatively constant force delivery. A study was designed to determine whether relatively constant forces can be delivered and whether the force magnitudes approach the manufacturer’s targeted force values. Heavy, medium, and light springs were activated 15 mm at temperatures that ranged from 15°C to 60°C. The forces were measured during deactivation with a specially constructed force transducer temperature chamber. Relatively constant forces can be achieved with an over-activation procedure that allows relaxation to the desired activation. The light springs delivered forces that were near the targeted force; no difference was found between the heavy and medium springs in the constant force range. The force magnitudes varied markedly depending on mouth temperature. (Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1999;15:498-507)

Karst hydrogeology of the Kaş-Kalkan springs along the Mediterranean coast of Turkey

The present studies were carried out along the southern Mediterranean coast of Turkey, where most of the karst springs discharge from highly karstified carbonate rocks. The case-study was applied in the Kas-Kalkan karst region, considered one of the most important touristic Mediterranean provinces in southern Turkey. The purpose of this study is to identify the main water resources of the karst springs in the inland side and the expected groundwater flow paths that may recharge the coastal springs in the study area. A comparison of the physiochemical properties and isotopic contents of the karst springs along the Kas-Kalkan coastline is also considered an important tool for identifying the hydrogeological characteristics and responses of the different units in the study area. Relevant studies were carried out also considering the morphological and structural characteristics of these karst springs and changes in their discharge amounts during the dry and wet periods.

Geochemistry and water dynamics of a medium-sized watershed: the Hérault, southern France: 1. Organisation of the different water reservoirs as constrained by Sr isotopes, major, and trace elements

The aim of this study of the Hérault watershed is to constrain the river–groundwater relations with a global geochemical investigation: major and trace elements, radiogenic isotopes (Sr, Pb) and stable isotopes (oxygen, deuterium). Among the six sampling campaigns in high and low flows, this paper focuses on the first one (March 1995) sampled during a low flow period for major and trace elements and Sr isotopes on both dissolved and particulate loads. A companion paper will focus on the river–karst relations in a dynamical scheme over a complete hydrological cycle. The objective of this paper is to constrain the spatial organisation of the different water reservoirs, to show the relations between surficial and groundwaters and to assess the mechanical and chemical weathering in this low-flow period. The Hérault main stream successively drains a Palaeozoic basement, a karstified Mesozoic cover and a Tertiary and Quaternary alluvial plain, the different tributaries also drain these lithologies. This watershed is also impacted by ancient mining, and agricultural activities especially in the southern part. Major element concentrations generally reflect the drained lithologies. The chemistry of the Hérault main stream is mainly controlled by silicate and carbonate endmembers, whereas the karstic springs show clearly a mixture of limestones and dolomitic limestones. Major elements point out some specific characteristics of some karstic springs, and Sr isotopes are used to check previous underground circulation hypotheses and sometimes reveal strong connections with overlying surface waters. Mixing phenomena between the Hérault river and its tributaries can be quantified in the 87 Sr / 86 Sr vs. 87 Rb / 86 Sr diagram based on a simple two-component scheme and agree within 10% with the real discharge measurements. As in large basins, the suspended matter presents more variable and more radiogenic 87 Sr / 86 Sr than the dissolved load, due to the more important contribution of silicate particles which are less soluble than carbonate. Dissolved Ca fluxes were estimated to be 36, 51 and 38 kg km −2 day −1 in the Palaeozoic basement, the Mesozoic cover and the alluvial plain, respectively. This implies a chemical erosion estimated to be 20 μm/year in the Palaeozoic basement and 58 μm/year in the Mesozoic cover, similar to values calculated for large basins.

Crack Growth Behavior in Ti-Ni SMA Coil Spring under Cyclic Thermal and Extension Fatigue.

The fatigue characteristics of Ti-Ni SMA coil springs under cyclic thermal and extension fatigue were investigated. The crack growth behavior and the fracture aspect were observed at several strain levels at three heating temperatures (60, 70 and 80°C). The cracks initiated on the inside surface of the coil springs and propagated in a direction almost perpendicular to the direction of maximum principal strain near the crack origin. The relations between crack growth rate (da/dN) and stress intensity factor range (ΔKσ) and strain intensity factor range (ΔKc) were found to be almost linear in a bilogarithmic graph. In particular, the da/dN-(ΔKc) relation in the case of a 60°C heating temperature was almost same as that in the case of an 80°C heating temperature.

Superelastic nickel titanium alloy retraction springs--an experimental investigation of force systems.

The purpose of the present investigation was to study the mechanical characteristics of canine retraction springs made of superelastic nickel titanium (NiTi) alloys. A modified Burstone T-loop was used to construct an experimental canine retraction spring 10 mm in height and 10 mm in length. Twenty-five NiTi T-segments were hand made from the superelastic orthodontic alloys Ormco NiTi and Soar Sentalloy (dimensions 0.016 x 0.022"). The T-segments were equipped with arms made of rectangular standard steel wire (0.017 x 0.025"). The following geometrical and mechanical parameters of the retraction springs were analysed: radius and bending angles of the T-segments, distalizing force and M/F ratio during activation and the force/deflection rate of the springs. The error in the geometric parameters was in the range of 5-10 per cent, irrespective of the alloy used to produce the T-segments. On the other hand, the force systems of the springs were strongly influenced by the alloy and the batch under investigation. There were differences in the distalizing force of up to 100 per cent, i.e. at the beginning of the unloading plateau the distalizing force varied from 0.4 to 2.5 N. The force/deflection rate varied between a value of 0.06 and 0.15 N/mm, whereas the moment/force ratio reached values of 6.5-7.0 mm. Within a single batch, a reproducibility of these mechanical properties of approximately 5 per cent could be obtained. These results confirm that each orthodontic device made of superelastic NiTi alloys has to be calibrated individually. The manufacturers should pay more attention to keeping the material properties of their NiTi alloys constant.

The governing factors of the physicochemical characteristics of sheshpeer karst Springs, Iran

The physical and chemical characteristics of karst springs are not a sole function of flow path in the carbonatic rock mass. A number of other parameters, including the type of precipitation, soil cover, morphology of the exposed area, and the hydrochemistry of the infiltrating water into the karst system also have their own contribution. In the present study, the Gar and Barm-Firooz mountains are chosen to determine some of the governing factors of the physical and hydrochemical characteristics of karst springs. The following measurements were carried out: The results indicate that if the physical and chemical characteristics of a karst spring are going to be used to determine the characteristics of corresponding aquifer, first the effect of external factors on the outflow should be accounted for, and then the characteristics of the karst aquifer be determined.

Active Control of Vibration Isolation System in Vehicle Using Voice Coil Motors.

This paper describes active vibration control of a vibration isolation system in a vehicle. The system consists of eight rubber springs which suppor the deadload of a sprung mass and six voice coil motors for vibration control. In order that control force acts not only in the vertical direction but also in the horizontal direction, voice coil motors have been inclined 30°. To avoid mechanical interference among the motors, rubber springs have been inserted between moving coils and the sprung mass. The spring characteristics of the rubber springs and the moving coil masses produce second-order delays. The feedback control of the acceleration of the sprung mass damps the vibration isolation system. Our controllers function as integrators in a lower-frequency region, and in order to compensate the delays, they function as differentiators in a higher-frequency region.

Relationship between hot springs and geothermal fields in Japan

Hot springs usually are situated in the volcanic belt of a convergent zone and are utilized as indicators of geothermal potential in an area. Characteristics of hot springs in Japan have been examined in order to understand the relationship between hot springs and geothermal fields. The characteristics examined include locations of hot springs, their temperature, density of distribution, flow rate, heat flow in the vicinity, and rate of volcanic activity in the area during last 200 years. Geochemical thermometers have been used to estimate subsurface temperatures in the area. The object of the study was to determine subsurface conditions in the vicinity of existing geothermal fields from these characteristics of hot springs. This examination shows that geothermal fields are situated near clusters of three or more hot springs with temperatures in the subsurface ≥150°C in the vicinity of these clusters, and many hot springs have a higher than average flow rate. The study also shows that higher subsurface temperatures and heat flow in the vicinity of the clusters of hot springs are not the result of significant volcanic activity in the area. The examination also shows that clusters of hot springs in Japan are located along the extension of zones which mark discontinuities in plate underthrusting. Measured heat flow in many of these zones is higher than average for volcanic areas. Such zones, with higher than average crustal temperatures and permeability, may be favorable for the development of productive geothermal fields if local geological and hydrological conditions permit.

High-Density Multipin Connector for High-Speed Pulse Propagation

A Procedure for designing connectors suitable for gigabit per second (Gbit/s) rate pulse propagation is presented. A design chart for a multipin connector satisfying both electrical and mechanical requirements is obtained. The design procedure is as follows. First, the effect of varying the arrangement of ground contact springs on characteristic impedance is investigated using the finite-element method. Next, the effect of varying contact spring size and contact spring pitch is analyzed with respect to characteristic impedance and crosstalk. Finally, a design chart is constructed for the multipin connector by combining the mechanical characteristics of the contact springs with the aforementioned electrical characteristics. Based on the resulting design chart, a prototype multipin connector for a pin grid array is fabricated. The empirically derived electrical characteristics of the prototype connector are in good agreement with those predicted analytically.

Chemical similarities among physically distinct spring types in a karst terrain

In karst regions where correlations between physical characteristics of springs and temporal variations in spring water chemistry have been found, spring water chemistry has been used to infer physical attributes of karst systems. Possible correlations between chemical and physical characteristics of springs were tested in the Inner Bluegrass Karst Region of central Kentucky where previous dye-tracing studies have identified two physically distinct spring types: local high-level springs discharging from shallow flow paths and major low-level springs discharging from a deep integrated conduit system. Representative high-level and major springs were sampled over a 16-month period and analyzed for major dissolved components. Both spring types showed similar variations in temperature, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate, and hardness. No systematic differences in ionic concentrations or in saturation indices with respect to calcite and dolomite were apparent between the two spring types. Chemical similarities between high-level and major springs during low flow are attributed to recharge of major springs by percolation and by high-level springs and to the occurrence of most chemical reactions near the recharge zone rather than in the deep conduit system. During high discharge, however, most recharge to the major springs is surface runoff which produces low ionic concentrations. Similarly low ionic concentrations in the high-level springs are thought to result from rapid flow through the soil-rock zone and short flow distances. These relationships indicate that spring water chemistry is not only a function of conduit size but also an indicator of recharge type and amount and flow path length. Differing flow path lengths to major and high-level springs counteract the effect of varying conduit size between the two spring types and result in similar ionic concentrations. These data indicate that spring water chemistry cannot be used to predict physical characteristics of karst aquifers in the Inner Bluegrass Region. The physical and chemical attributes of springs in the Inner Bluegrass were compared to those of springs in the Nittany Valley of Pennsylvania. A reported high correlation between physical and chemical characteristics of springs in the Pennsylvania karst system reflects geological and structural controls not present in the Inner Bluegrass Region.